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Climate change leads to changes in glacier mass balance, including steady advancements and surges that reposition the glacier snouts. Glacier advancement can dam proglacial meltwater lakes. Within the Karakoram and surrounding regions, the positive feedback of climate change has resulted in more frequent ice-dammed glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), often facilitated by englacial conduits. However, the complex and multi-factor processes of conduit development are difficult to measure. Determining the lake depths that might trigger GLOFs and the numerical model specifications for breaching is challenging. Empirical estimates of lake volumes, along with field-based monitoring of lake levels and depths and the assessment of GLOF hazards, enable warnings and damage mitigation. Using historical data, remote sensing techniques, high-resolution imagery, cross-correlation feature tracking, and field-based data, we identified the processes of lake formation, drainage timing, and triggering depth. We developed empirical approaches to determine lake volume and trigger water pressure leading to a GLOF. A correlation, albeit a weak one, between glacier surge velocity and lake volume reveals that glacier surge may play a crucial role in lake formation and thus controls the size and volume of the lake. Lake volume estimation involves geometric considerations of the lake basin shape. A GLOF becomes likely when the lake's normalized depth (n′) exceeds 0.60, equivalent to a typical water pressure on the dam face of 510 kPa. These field and remotely sensed findings not only offer valuable insights for early warning procedures in the Karakoram but also suggest that similar approaches might be effectively applied to other mountain environments worldwide where GLOFs pose a hazard.

In mountainous areas, damage caused by debris flows is often aggravated by subsequent dam-burst floods within the main river confluence zone. On 30 August 2020, a catastrophic disaster chain occurred at the confluence of the Heixiluo Gully and Niri River in Ganluo County, southwest China, consisting of a debris flow, the formation of a barrier lake, and subsequent dam break that flooded the community. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the characteristics of the two hazards and the resulting damage to buildings from the cascading hazards. The peak discharge of the debris flow in the gully mouth reached 1871 m3 s−1. Following the dam break, the flood with a peak discharge of 2737 m3 s−1 significantly altered the main river channel, causing a 4-fold increase in flood inundation compared to an ordinary flood. Three hazard zones were established based on the building damage patterns: (I) primary debris flow burial, (II) secondary dam-burst flood inundation, and (III) sequential debris flow burial and dam-burst inundation. Vulnerability curves were developed for Zone (II) and Zone (III) using impact pressures and inundation depths, and a vulnerability assessment chart is presented that contains the three damage categories. This research addresses a gap in the vulnerability assessments of debris flow hazard cascades and can support future disaster mitigation within confluence areas.

In recent decades, the Tsho Rolpa glacial lake has witnessed a significant increase in its surface area. Situated in the Eastern Himalayas at an elevation of 4552 m a.s.l. (meters above sea level), this lake has drawn attention due to the potential risks of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). To comprehensively study and prepare for future GLOF events from Tsho Rolpa, advanced modeling techniques were employed, utilizing the National Weather Service BREACH (NWS-BREACH) and Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) models. The assessment included the evaluation of dam breach scenarios, especially 20 and 40 m breaches, using the NWS-BREACH model to estimate breach hydrographs. This analysis revealed peak flow rates ranging from 8198 to 26 662 m3 s−1 for the respective breaching scenarios. Additionally, considering a change in the lake area over 20 to 40 years, the peak flow ranged from 8226 to 10 662 m3 s−1 for the 20 m breach scenario. The peak flow estimates obtained from NWS-BREACH were subsequently integrated into the HEC-RAS model to simulate peak discharge and flood heights at varying distances downstream of the lake outlet. To understand the consequences of a GLOF, the impact on downstream areas was assessed through flood inundation maps, and precautionary measures are recommended.

Abstract Global warming has accelerated alpine glacier melting and led to an increased risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). This paper extracted glacial lake boundaries in the Tienshan Mountains of Central Asia from 1990 to 2023, analyzed their spatiotemporal variations and evaluated their risk levels under current and future scenarios. The results show that glacial lakes are predominantly distributed in the Central and Western Tienshan, accounting for 75% of the total number in the Tienshan region. The number and area of glacial lakes increased by 148% (from 1837 to 4557) and 71.83% (from 119.73 to 205.73 km2) during 1990 to 2023, with moraine lake expansion predominating. In the Western Tienshan, the high or very high risk of GLOF is 3–4 times that of other areas. By the middle of the twenty-first century, GLOF risk will continue to increase, especially in the Western Tienshan. This study can provide scientific foundation for disaster mitigation in the downstream areas.

The ongoing trend of warming climate has made Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) a major cryospheric hazard worldwide, especially in the Himalayas. GLOFs in the Himalayan region are mostly caused by moraine-dammed proglacial lakes and ice-dammed lakes. These sporadic disasters have resulted in significant loss of life and property. This study offers a comprehensive analysis of the GLOF hazard potential of a potentially dangerous proglacial lake (PDGL) in the Ladakh region. This research explores the GLOF threat from the lake using multi-criteria analysis and advanced 2D hydrodynamic modeling approaches. The mass balance response of the mother glacier, its flow dynamics, and glacier-lake interactions were examined for the past 22 years. The findings show that over this period, the PDGL has had a notable expansion of 78.7%, accompanied by a significant recession of 13.2% in its feeding glacier. The glacier has witnessed an average thickness loss of ⁓7 m at the rate of 0.32 m a−1 during this period. The average, lowest, and maximum depth of the glacier were found to be 30.95, 14.30, and 50.57 m, respectively and the average velocity of the glacier was estimated as 3.38 m a−1. Because of the lake’s rapid expansion and steep surrounding slopes, it was classified as a high-hazard lake. The risk to the downstream community was assessed through 2D hydrodynamic modeling using the HEC-RAS tool. The maximum discharge under the worst-case scenario for the piping and overtopping failures was estimated as 3890.99 m3s−1 and 5111.39 m3s−1, respectively. The area potentially under the threat of inundation was calculated to be 4.74 and 5.38 km2 for the moderate and worst-case scenarios respectively. The expected maximum flood velocities range from 18.26 to 23.78 meters, respectively for the moderate and worst-case scenarios. At several locations in the downstream area, routed hydrographs representing the GLOF propagation were generated. The findings show that the flood wave in the worst-case scenario would arrive at the first settlement in 50 min, with a peak velocity of 12.36 m s−1. The potentially inundated area includes critical infrastructure such as bridges, residential houses, and roads. To mitigate the potential risk associated with this lake, a more detailed and on-site study is highly recommended.

The melting of glaciers has led to an unprecedented increase in the number and size of glacial lakes, particularly in the Himalayan region. A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a natural hazard in which water from a glacial or glacier-fed lake is swiftly discharged. GLOFs can significantly harm life, infrastructure, and settlements located downstream and can have considerable ecological, economic, and social impacts. Based on a dam breach model, BREACH, and a hydrodynamic model, HEC-RAS (Hydrologic Engineering Centre's River Analysis System), we examined the potential consequences of a GLOF originating from the Thorthomi glacial lake, located within the Phochhu river basin, one of Bhutan's largest and rapidly expanding glacial lakes. Our analysis revealed that following a breach the Thorthomi glacial lake will likely discharge a peak flow of 16 360 m3 s−1 within 4 h. Such a discharge could potentially cause considerable damage, with an estimated 245 ha of agricultural land and over 1277 buildings at risk of inundation. To mitigate ecological, economic, and social impacts on downstream areas, our results emphasise an urgent need for understanding and preparing for the potential consequences of a GLOF from Thorthomi lake. Our findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders involved in disaster management and preparedness.

On 4 October 2023, a glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) occurred at South Lhonak Lake in the northwest of Sikkim, India, posing a severe threat to downstream lives and property. Given the serious consequences of GLOFs, understanding their triggering factors is urgent. This paper conducts a comprehensive analysis of optical imagery and InSAR deformation results to study changes in the surrounding surface of the glacial lake before and after the GLOF event. To expedite the processing of massive InSAR data, an InSAR processing system based on the SBAS-InSAR data processing flow and the AI Earth cloud platform was developed. Sentinel-1 SAR images spanning from January 2021 to March 2024 were used to calculate surface deformation velocity. The evolution of the lake area and surface variations in the landslide area were observed using optical images. The results reveal a significant deformation area within the moraine encircling the lake before the GLOF, aligning with the area where the landslide ultimately occurred. Further research suggests a certain correlation between InSAR deformation results and multiple factors, such as rainfall, lake area, and slope. We speculate that heavy rainfall triggering landslides in the moraine may have contributed to breaching the moraine dam and causing the GLOF. Although the landslide region is relatively stable overall, the presence of a crack in the toparea of landslide raises concerns about potential secondary landslides. Our study may improve GLOF risk assessment and management, thereby mitigating or preventing their hazards.

Abstract We use digital elevation models (DEMs) and ICESat‐2 data to study the filling and outflow from a large subglacial lake under Manson Icefield in the Canadian Arctic. When full, the lake is ∼17 × 3 km with an area of 52 km2. Early in 2021 the ice surface over the center of the lake sank by >140 m implying a subglacial outburst flood of ∼4 km3. Rapid outflow occurred over ∼30 days at an average rate of ∼1,500 m3s−1 resulting in the formation of a single ∼15 km subglacial outflow path detectable from post‐outflow surface depression. The shape of the surface depression, 600–800 m wide by 2–4 m deep, reflects the shape of the subglacial channel prior to closure. Downstream ice movement appears unaffected by the outflow. After outflow ends the surface depression persisted over weeks, apparently dependent on the difference between water and overburden pressures.

Abstract Both regular flow and infrequent outburst floods shape the mountain landscape, but their relative contributions have been widely debated, in part due to the paucity of quantitative data on historical outburst floods. In June 2000, an outburst flood was triggered by a landslide-dam failure in a rapidly exhumed region of the Eastern Himalaya. To investigate the role of this kind outburst flood on landscape evolution, we employ topographic differencing, satellite imagery, and 2D hydraulic simulations to quantify the equivalent erosion and deposition within ~ 80 km flood route downstream of the breach. The flood lasted for ~ 10 h, with a peak discharge of 105 m3/s, leading to average erosion of 10 m, and contributed ~ 1–2 × 103 times more sediment than over long-term mean fluvial processes. The flood produced extensive lateral erosion, which triggered a threefold widening of the valley floor and abundant subsequent landslides. The ubiquitous boulder bars deposited in the channel inhibited incision, and facilitated lateral erosion after the flood. The resulting channel configuration and extensive bank erosion continue to affect fluvial dynamics until the next catastrophic flood that remobilizes the boulders. Our quantitative findings highlight the profound importance of recurrent outburst floods for gorge development and landscape evolution in Eastern Himalaya.

AbstractKarakoram Himalayas are vulnerable to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), which cause catastrophic floods in the surrounding areas. The increasing natural and anthropogenic activities, especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains at the southern flank of the towering Himalayas, could be the cause of climate change affecting the frequency of the natural hazards in the Himalayas. In the present study, a detailed analysis of the Shisper Lake breach of 7 May 2022 is carried out using satellite remote sensing. A decreasing trend in the glacial mass balance is observed between 2017 and 2021; in this period, frequent GLOF episodes occurred. A pronounced decline in the snow cover and glacial debris (before the cascade) and an abnormal increase in land surface temperature (LST) retrieved from satellite data could be responsible for the enhanced snow/glacial melting prior to the breach. Alteration in glacial mobility (cm/12 days) is observed at the locations where the glacier melts due to an increase in LST with increased debris cover. In the paper, we have studied changes in water quality and land cover along the stream after the GLOF. An increment in normalized difference turbidity index (NDTI) is observed before the flood showing turbulence and sediment load. Increased glacial melt contribution into the stream results in increased flow rate and decreased water quality as observed through normalized difference water index (NDWI) and normalized difference chlorophyll index (NDCI), near the Karakoram Highway Bridge. Sentinel-1 backscatter coefficient indicates increased discharge from the melting of glaciers. A significant reduction in co-flood coherence is observed, attributed to the bridge collapse and severe bank erosion.

The Northern Areas of Pakistan encompass the Hindukush, Karakoram, and Himalayan mountain ranges witnessing glacier surging, exacerbated by climate warming. As glaciers rapidly melt, ravines experience heightened blockage and migration, obstructing stream discharges and forming expansive ice-dammed lakes. The rupture of these natural dams triggers Glacial Lake Outburst Floods downstream in the primary glacier's ravine. The catastrophic Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in 2022 across the Karakoram ranges in Northern Pakistan prompted this study. It focuses on Shishper Glacier Lake. The aim is to provide complete flood observations and their devastating effects on downstream communities. Analysis of Landsat 08 Imagery reveals the evolution of Shishper Glacier Lake from its initiation in November 2018 to the catastrophic GLOF in May 2022. The lake reached a maximum area of 0.32 km2 in 2019 and its successive breaches on June 22, 2019, and May 29, 2020, reduced it to 0.018 km2. Draining continued until July 2021, shrinking the lake area to 0.009 km2. A noteworthy 2.73 °C temperature increase in 2022 correlated with an expansion of the lake area to 0.33 km2, culminating in the GLOF on May 7th, 2022. The study emphasizes the critical need for mapping, assessing, and monitoring surging glaciers and glacier-formed lakes in the Karakoram ranges to safeguard downstream communities from potential hazards.

Outburst floods can affect the survival adaptability of fish. Although the survival adaptability of many fish species under low steady-flow conditions has been studied, research on the survival adaptability of fish species under large outburst flood conditions is lacking. This paper takes the 2018 Baige landslide dam as an example. A breach model was developed to calculate the outburst discharge of the landslide dam. The outburst flood hydrograph is simulated with the breach model, which shows that the difference between the peak discharge of the dam break simulation results and the measured data is 0.13×104 m3/s. In addition, the simulated hydrographs are the same as the measured hydrographs. Furthermore, a two-dimensional fish habitat model was used to analyse the adaptability of Schizothorax to survival during the breaching process. For the survival adaptability of Schizothorax, we observed that as the flow rate increased the weighted usable area (WUA) decreased, which indicated a decrease in the adaptability of Schizothorax survival. In contrast, as the flow rate decreased and the WUA increased, the survival adaptability of Schizothorax improved. In addition, the WUA of Schizothorax changed with the substrate of the riverbed; the smaller the channel suitability index (CSI) the greater the WUA. This study revealed the impact of outburst floods triggered by landslide dam failure on the survival adaptability of Schizothorax, and a method for assessing the impact of outburst floods on fish habitat adaptability is provided.

The Shishapangma region, situated in the middle of the Himalayas, is rich in glacial lakes and glaciers. Hence, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have become a top priority because of the severe threat posed by GLOFs to the downstream settlements. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of GLOF hazards using multi-source remote sensing datasets and designs a flood model considering the different breaching depths and release volumes for the Galong Co region. Based on high-resolution optical images, we derived the expanding lake area and volume of glacial lakes. We monitored deformation velocity and long-term deformation time series around the lake dam with Small BAseline Subset Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SBAS-InSAR). The glacier thinning trend was obtained from the difference in the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). We identified potential avalanche sources by combining topographic slope and measurable deformation. We then carried out flood modeling under three different scenarios using the hydrodynamic model HEC-RAS for Galong Co, which is formed upstream of Nyalam. The results show that the Nyalam region is exposed to high-intensity GLOFs in all scenarios. The larger breaching depth and release volumes caused a greater flow depth and peak discharge. Overall, the multiple remote sensing approaches can be applied to other glacial lakes, and the modeling can be used as a basis for GLOF mitigation.

We use digital elevation models (DEMs) and ICESat‐2 data to study the filling and outflow from a large subglacial lake under Manson Icefield in the Canadian Arctic. When full, the lake is ∼17 × 3 km with an area of 52 km2. Early in 2021 the ice surface over the center of the lake sank by >140 m implying a subglacial outburst flood of ∼4 km3. Rapid outflow occurred over ∼30 days at an average rate of ∼1,500 m3s−1 resulting in the formation of a single ∼15 km subglacial outflow path detectable from post‐outflow surface depression. The shape of the surface depression, 600–800 m wide by 2–4 m deep, reflects the shape of the subglacial channel prior to closure. Downstream ice movement appears unaffected by the outflow. After outflow ends the surface depression persisted over weeks, apparently dependent on the difference between water and overburden pressures. Plain Language Summary: Using satellite observations, we discovered a large lake under the Manson Icefield in the Canadian Arctic. Early in 2021 the ice surface over the center of the lake sank by around 140 m implying a total subglacial water outflow of around 4 km3, the largest reported outside of Iceland and Antarctica. Most of this water drained from the subglacial lake within 30 days melting some of the ice along the outflow path. For the first time we map the position and size of the subglacial output channel between the downstream end of the lake and the ocean using post‐outflow surface depression as the ice sank downward to close the channel after the water outflow. These results help in understanding the ways in which the presence, movement, and volume of water beneath glaciers influence ice movement and climate related glacial ice loss. Key Points: Using satellite height change data we document the discovery of a 52 km2 subglacial lake under the Manson Icefield, Nunavut, CanadaThe lake filled for around 14 years until early 2021 when the level in the center of the lake dropped by 130 m over 30 daysThe outflow volume was around 4 cubic kilometers and created a wide and shallow subglacial channel that could be tracked for over 15 km [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 4 October 2023, a glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) occurred at South Lhonak Lake in the northwest of Sikkim, India, posing a severe threat to downstream lives and property. Given the serious consequences of GLOFs, understanding their triggering factors is urgent. This paper conducts a comprehensive analysis of optical imagery and InSAR deformation results to study changes in the surrounding surface of the glacial lake before and after the GLOF event. To expedite the processing of massive InSAR data, an InSAR processing system based on the SBAS-InSAR data processing flow and the AI Earth cloud platform was developed. Sentinel-1 SAR images spanning from January 2021 to March 2024 were used to calculate surface deformation velocity. The evolution of the lake area and surface variations in the landslide area were observed using optical images. The results reveal a significant deformation area within the moraine encircling the lake before the GLOF, aligning with the area where the landslide ultimately occurred. Further research suggests a certain correlation between InSAR deformation results and multiple factors, such as rainfall, lake area, and slope. We speculate that heavy rainfall triggering landslides in the moraine may have contributed to breaching the moraine dam and causing the GLOF. Although the landslide region is relatively stable overall, the presence of a crack in the toparea of landslide raises concerns about potential secondary landslides. Our study may improve GLOF risk assessment and management, thereby mitigating or preventing their hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous oral traditions of the Líl̓wat Nation recount observations of Qw̓elqw̓elústen (Mount Meager), a Garibaldi Volcanic Belt volcano in southwestern British Columbia, Canada; and associated eruptive activity, mass-wasting, and outburst flooding. We present Líl̓wat observations relating to Qw̓elqw̓elústen's ∼2360 cal year B.P. eruption and its aftermath, a devastating outburst flood down the Lillooet valley. The Copper Canoe story correlates with the event sequence of pyroclastic damming of the Lillooet River and an outburst flood traveling far downstream, interrupting salmon runs and displacing people. Other stories suggest an eruptive plume and fumaroles. Recounted valley-floor changes, with proximal scouring and downstream filling of marshes allowing human resettlement, closely parallel and augment geological evidence, showing that oral traditions are equally important in holding landscape history. Oral traditions portray dramatic landscape changes, some by the Transformers, said to have traveled this land to make imperfect things right. Geologically documented debris-flow delta progradation and infill of the upper 50 km of Lillooet Lake since ∼12 000 cal B.P. underscore the land's dynamism and the need for both sources to inform planning for future eruptive, mass-wasting, and flooding events. Traditional landscape knowledge, like Western science, is observational and evidence-based, though interpretations can differ given Indigenous belief in a sentient landscape, capable of acting with intention. Binding of stories to geographical locations has functioned as a powerful mnemonic device to preserve orally transmitted information across many generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]