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Communities in close proximity to protected areas suffer wildlife depredations which may engender negative attitudes to wildlife resulting in wildlife persecution. We assessed people's perceptions about the aardvark, a shy, nocturnal Afrotherian mammal prioritized for conservation. We used semi-structured questionnaires to conduct interviews with 181 persons (11 to > 70 years old) from randomly selected households. Respondents' perceptions of the aardvark were strongly positive (78%), because the animal does not cause physical harm to people, and flees upon sighting them. Aardvarks were hunted for meat (35%) and to obtain body parts for household use or sale to traditional healers. The positive perceptions about the animal are counteracted by the reputed tasty meat of the animal, which together with sale of its body parts have an overriding influence on animal abundance. We highlight the threats faced by aardvark due to its occurrence in close proximity to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yak farming is the mainstays of nomadic herders' economy in Bhutan. However, it has declined over the years despite diverse government interventions. Rapid socio-economic development and access to economic opportunities further hindered yak farming culture rather than helping to maintain highlanders' livelihood. The study was carried out in four gewogs, Chhoekhor, Sephu, Merak and Sakteng, that depends on yaks for their living. Questionnaire based semi-structured interview was conducted to identify the main challenges and opportunities of yak herding within the different regions and examined the cost-benefit of herding yaks within the premises of nomadic herder's livelihood sustenance. The study revealed that yak farming generates sufficient income to support the herders' livelihood even though the profit margin was minimal. Around 90% of herders earned cash income from yaks. Dry cheese was the main revenue generator of Chhoekhor and Sephu, while fermented cheese earnt the highest income in Merak and Sephu. Yaks not only serve as the primary source of livelihood but also acts as a catalyst to generate additional income by gaining access to natural resources such as Cordyceps and herbal medicines. However, increased wildlife depredation on yaks and inadequate pastureland coupled with poor modern amenities threatened yak farming. The findings showed a declining trend in total yak population and number of yak-owning households particularly in Chhoekhor and Sephu compared to Merak and Sakteng. The future of yak farming in Bhutan is uncertain, but there is potential to address the challenges and ensure its continued importance to Bhutanese highlanders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community‐based conservation is a widely adopted wildlife governance approach, but questions remain about the conditions under which this form of wildlife governance achieves success. Particularly, participating communities are often marked by considerable wealth and risk heterogeneities that are driven by differences in livestock or agricultural holdings and varying exposure to wildlife depredation of those holdings.The effect of these types of heterogeneity on successful conservation collective action is understudied, particularly in the case of risk heterogeneity. This lacuna limits policymakers' ability to effectively match the design of community‐based programs to their particular settings.Using established behavioural experimental techniques, we model the incentive structures underlying community‐based wildlife conservation where actors differ in wealth and exposure to human–wildlife conflict. We conduct a modified binary linear voluntary contribution mechanism game, in which we vary subject endowments and risk of incurring a loss when participating in collective action and we find that the type of heterogeneity matters to collective action success.On their own, the presence of either economic or risk heterogeneities (but not both) dampen cooperation compared with homogeneous groups, as do 'balanced' distributions of both heterogeneities (where individuals facing high risk levels receive high endowments and vice versa). However, groups with 'unbalanced' heterogeneities (where those facing high risk levels receive low endowments and vice versa) demonstrate cooperation at similar levels to that of homogeneous groups.At the individual level, risk drives cooperative behaviour, although its impact is influenced by relative wealth levels when both forms of heterogeneity are present.These findings suggest the need for a more in‐depth look at the role and interaction of risk and wealth heterogeneities in conservation management. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock depredation is a major conservation challenge globally, causing significant economic losses to pastoralists and threatening large carnivore species outside protected areas. Our study investigated the temporal and spatial distribution of livestock depredation incidences, carnivore species associated with livestock depredation, and assessed mitigation measures in Maasai Mara Conservancies in Southern Kenya. Using daily monitoring of livestock depredation cases, we made comparisons between livestock attacks occurring in predator-proof bomas and those with traditional kraals. A total of 305 livestock depredation incidents were recorded between January and December 2021, translating to a total tally of 1411 livestock maimed or killed. Most livestock depredation incidents occurred during the day (59%) as opposed to night (41%), but this difference was not significant. Livestock depredation incidents in the nighttime occurred mostly inside traditional kraals (34%) and occurred the least in predator-proof kraals (2%). Lions were responsible for more livestock attacks in the grazing fields compared with leopards, hyenas, and wild dogs. Hyenas were more daring and attacked livestock inside traditional bomas relative to lions and leopards. Our study concludes that predator-proof bomas are more effective in minimizing livestock depredation and can be embraced as a sound intervention for human–carnivore co-existence in communities' wildlife conservation areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural commodity production constitutes an important livelihood source for farmers but significantly contributes to tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss. While the socioecological effects of agricultural commodities such as palm oil, cocoa and coffee are well studied, the effects for commodities such as cashew (Anacardium occidentale) have received less attention. Global cultivated area for cashew increased rapidly from 526,250 ha in 1980 to ~5.9 million ha in 2018. India is the world's second largest cashew producer, with cashew farms often occurring adjacent to remnant forests. To mitigate deforestation for cashew expansion, it is necessary to understand present-day land use policies and management practices that drive this expansion. Through semi-structured interviews (n = 65) and a literature review on agricultural policies in India, we evaluated the role of state-led land use policies in cashew expansion and characterised present-day cashew farming systems in the Sawantwadi-Dodamarg landscape in India. Agricultural subsidies introduced from 1980s to 1990s encouraged cultivar cashew expansion and influenced land use conversion from rice and privately owned forest to cashew. Farmers preferred cultivar cashew as they produced higher yields faster, although they required more agrochemical inputs and were susceptible to pests and wildlife depredation. About 80% of farmers had planted cashew farms by clearing forests in the past 30 years and expressed interest to continue the same. Farmers avoided applying for government-sponsored compensation for crop losses due to wildlife depredation and chose instead to expand cultivar cashew into forested areas. Our study deepens the understanding of how government-led agricultural subsidies drive farmers' uptake of cashew cultivars, farmers' cashew management practices, and how these factors drive deforestation in this landscape at the state and farm level. We recommend further research with equitable stakeholder participation in cashew farming systems to devise sound planning for forest conservation and sustainability standards for the cashew industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding ecology of carnivores is integral to understanding their role in the ecosystem and the effect they have on their prey species. This study aims to better our understanding of Black-backed jackal feeding ecology in a fairly natural ecosystem, to contribute towards more informed depredation management in surrounding agri-ecosystems. Scat analysis was used to investigate the diet of Black-backed jackal inside a 5590 ha formal protected area, namely Maria Moroka Nature Reserve, which is surrounded by cattle and small stock farms. The six main prey groups identified from 334 scats were mice, springhare, antelope (c. 98% Springbok), hare, small carnivores and fruit. Rodents (mice mean monthly percentage occurrence 36%, springhare 31%) were utilized the most frequently, followed by antelope (Springbok 22% Occ; Blesbok 0.51%). The next most used prey group was small carnivores, present in 8% of scats. Hares and fruit, but also birds and invertebrates, were taken sporadically. No stock remains were found in the scats. Very similar results were obtained when volumetric contributions were calculated, resulting in mice (mean monthly contribution = 33% Vol; Importance Value, IV = 15.2), springhare (30% Vol; IV = 11.9) and antelope (24% Vol; IV = 10.0) being the most important prey items. Small carnivores (8% Vol) had an Importance Value of 1.2, and all other prey groups scored less than 0.4 IV. The wide variety of prey used, together with their monthly fluctuations (which for some groups could be coupled to availability) and prey switching between the three most important prey items mice, springhare and antelope, support opportunistic feeding behaviour by Black-backed jackal in the study area. The results also confirmed that Black-backed jackal does utilize Springbok as a major food source, and that this usage peaked during the two periods when Springbok lamb at Maria Moroka Nature Reserve. These periods do not only coincide with the Black-backed jackal pupping and dispersal seasons, but also with the two sheep lambing seasons in the central and southern Free State Province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa has a long record of depredation. Since 2004, renewed awareness of this conundrum has markedly increased. The question arose as to what was learnt from historic management efforts, and how farmers, managers and conservation officials can best include it in management programs. Historical reports of two government-subsidised hunt clubs that operated in the Mossel Bay district of South Africa during the late 1970s to early 1990s were analysed to determine their contribution in managing the effects of specific predators on small livestock. District-level and farm-level analyses highlighted the value of such data in depicting the extent and distribution of predation and predator control and the role of government as an authoritative body to coordinate predation management and research efforts. However, the format of hunt reports, inaccurate or incomplete data recorded by hunters and untraceable hunt reports did not provide a clear understanding of predation and predator control relationships and patterns. Detailed data will enable meaningful analyses on predation management, such as cause-and-effects of predation incidences and predator control. Detailed spatiotemporal information on each predation incident and predator control activity, background information on club membership, the extent to which farmers depended on technical aid from the clubs, as well as physical and managerial aspects of each farm, may aid in interpreting the effect of predators on livestock. It may also aid in determining the effect of different control methods and management practices on predators and future predation, as well as factors which may influence these effects. Although information from the reports investigated was, therefore, not as useful for management purposes, it illustrated the potential value of the well-coordinated collection of standardised data for research on a local, regional, and national level. However, a framework needs to be developed that should be informed by multi- and interdisciplinary research approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In agriculturally dependent regions interspersed with wildlands, crop damage and livestock depredation by wildlife threatens rural livelihoods and undermines conservation efforts. Determining the species, human activities and landscape features correlated with losses to wildlife is critical for developing effective mitigation approaches. To better understand drivers of wildlife damage, we surveyed 419 households in the western Serengeti of Tanzania about agricultural practices and wildlife-induced losses. Using a causal inference framework and hierarchical Bayesian models, we assessed the influence of environmental and household characteristics on damage by different wildlife species. Crop loss to elephant was the most widespread form of damage; crop loss to baboon and vervet monkey was less common. Livestock depredation by hyena was widespread and common, while depredation by lion was rare and localized. The majority of respondents perceived wildlife as the greatest threat to crop production, whereas reproductive efficiency and environmental factors were seen as greater threats than wildlife to livestock. The risk of crop and livestock damage was consistently and negatively associated with human disturbance, and positively associated with farm and herd size. The influence of other factors, including woody cover, slope, and proximity to settlements varied across forms of damage and species. Our findings suggest that land use planning may be a generalizable approach to reducing wildlife damage, but variability in the drivers, extent, conservation status, and tolerance for losses indicate that species-specific mitigation strategies are required. Multi-species assessments offer broad insights into human-wildlife interactions and can aid in the identification and prioritization of mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communities in and around protected areas are exposed to a higher level of human-wildlife interactions. The conservation practice with persistently adverse local livelihood outcomes can potentially aggravate such interactions leading to conflict. In our study, we examined how perceptions of HWC have formed in a protected area of the Trans-Himalayas whose conservation program collides with a centuries-long tradition of transhumance pastoralism. To examine determinants of depredation and how conflict perception has developed there, along with the socioeconomic and ecological interactions underlying those trends, we collected data using household surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. We employed Poisson-logit maximum-likelihood hurdle, binary logit, and multinomial ordered logit regressions in order to explore the determinants of annual livestock depredation, predator attacks on the shed, and household-level perceptions of HWC, respectively. Depredation and encounters with wildlife were the principal causes of perceived HWC, and depredation caused an average household-level loss of US $422.5, up to 23.28% of annual income in some households. Predators' attacks on high-quality sheds were relatively infrequent but more common in areas with perceived habitat degradation. Social customs, pastoral practices, and the present compensation mechanism were identified as being antithetical to conflict reduction and sustainable pastureland management. Further analysis revealed that a diversity of livelihoods, however, lowered conflict perception formation. The identified socio-ecological factors will continue to increase depredation, exacerbate perceived HWC, and degrade pastureland unless local conservation authorities take appropriate remedial measures. • Human wildlife conflict is serious and multifaceted. • Depredation causes serious impact on local livelihoods in conservation areas. • Shed attack by carnivores is related to predator diversity, perceived habitat loss, and herd size. • Economic loss by depredation and direct encounters with predators are key determinants of HWC perception. • Pastureland degradation, complex compensation mechanism, and socio-economic settings complicate the conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-level policy debates surrounding elephant management often dominate global conservation headlines, yet realities for people living with wildlife are not adequately incorporated into policymaking or evident in related discourse. 1,2 Human health and livelihoods can be severely impacted by wildlife and indirectly by policy outcomes. 3 In landscapes where growing human and elephant (Loxodonta spp. and Elephas maximus) populations compete over limited resources, human-elephant conflict causes crop loss, human injury and death, and retaliatory killing of wildlife. 4–6 Across Africa, these problems may be increasingly compounded by climate change, which intensifies resource competition and food insecurity. 6–9 Here, we examine how human-wildlife impacts interact with climate change and household food insecurity across the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, the world's largest terrestrial transboundary conservation area, spanning five African nations. We use hierarchical Bayesian statistical models to analyze multi-country household data together with longitudinal satellite-based climate measures relevant to rainfed agriculture. We find that crop depredation by wildlife, primarily elephants, impacts 58% of sampled households annually and is associated with significant increases in food insecurity. These wildlife impacts compound effects of changing climate on food insecurity, most notably observed as a 5-day shortening of the rainy season per 10 years across the data record (1981–2018). To advance sustainability goals, global conservation policy must better integrate empirical evidence on the challenges of human-wildlife coexistence into longer term strategies at transboundary scales, specifically in the context of climate change. 3,9–11 • KAZA households experience diverse factors constraining livelihoods • Marginal agriculture is further limited by recent changes in precipitation patterns • Crop depredation by wildlife is widespread and compounds food insecurity • Inclusive policies conserving wildlife and supporting people are needed Salerno et al. quantify impacts of changing rainfall and wildlife crop depredation across multiple nation sites in KAZA. Crops lost to wildlife, primarily elephants, cause significant increases in food insecurity, beyond observed impacts from shortened rainy seasons. Findings articulate the need for inclusive policies supporting wildlife and people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]