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Author(s): Vanessa Arán Filippetti [sup.1] [sup.2] , Gabriela Krumm [sup.1] [sup.2] , Mariana Beatriz López [sup.1] [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) https://ror.org/03cqe8w59, grid.423606.5, 0000 0001 1945 2152, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones [...], Empirical research studies have emphasized the importance of examining the strategic retrieval processes (i.e., clustering and switching) underlying verbal fluency (VF) performance. This systematic review aimed to summarize existing empirical studies on the development of clustering and switching strategies during VF in typically developing (TD) children and adolescents and further explore strategy use in children with atypical development (AD). A systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was conducted. Most studies used the scoring method developed by Troyer et al. (1997 (See CR79)), and some used a combination of the other available approaches (e.g., Abwender et al.'s [2001 (See CR1)] method considering the distinction between cluster switching [CS] and hard switching [HS]). The main results suggest that clustering and switching are components that follow distinct developmental trajectories. Indeed, most studies found that the number of clusters and switches, but not the mean cluster size, increases with age, with no differences based on sex. Both the number of clusters and the number of switches drive word productivity. Switches are highly related to VF phonological productivity, while clusters are most related to semantic productivity. Finally, different profiles are observed in AD, with patterns that distinguish between impairment in cognitive flexibility (less switching) and in the organization of semantic and phonological representations (smaller cluster size). This evidence highlights the importance of utilizing qualitative analysis of VF output for understanding strategic retrieval processes and lexico-semantic knowledge in children. Furthermore, it provides valuable data for informing the neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in children and adolescents with typical and atypical development.

Objective: We conducted two empirical studies (in a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design) with the aim at establishing normative data (including norms for strategy use [i.e., clustering and switching strategies] and performance over time), and examining the convergent validity, the test–retest reliability (3–4 wks interval) and the changes in performance with practice (1 year interval) of the different verbal fluency (VF) quantitative and qualitative scores in Spanish-speaking children and adolescents. Method: In S1 (n = 620 6- to 15-year-old Spanish-speaking children and adolescents), MANCOVA and Pearson's correlations were employed. In S2 (n = 148 6- to 12-year-old Spanish-speaking children), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), paired t-tests, and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used. Results: S1 results showed an age effect on all VF measures (quantitative and qualitative). The number of switches/clusters was more related to total word productivity and to executive functions (EF) than the mean cluster size. In S2, a significant increase in phonological VF performance was observed on number of switches and word productivity scores from baseline (Time 1) to repeat testing at Time 2. Practice effects were observed at Time 3 on all measures except for semantic and phonological mean cluster size. Test–retest reliability coefficients at Time 2 for number of clusters and switches, but not for mean cluster size, fell in the moderate range, ranging from ICCs.61 to ICCs.81. Test–retest reliability coefficients for total word productivity were higher (ICCs above.80) and stronger when testing as a unity with CFA methods (ϕ=.94, p <.001). Conclusions: These data may be relevant for informing the neuropsychological assessment of spontaneous cognitive flexibility in children with typical development (TD) and those with developmental or acquired disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) was initially developed to measure problem solving and abstract reasoning. Currently, it is widely used for the neuropsychological evaluation of those cognitive processes related to frontal lobe functioning, more specifically as a measure of reactive cognitive flexibility. Although its use is widespread both in clinic and research settings, controversies remained regarding the nature of the cognitive processes that underlie WCST performance and the relationships between its diverse scores and other related cognitive measures. To date, studies have been conducted in adolescents and adults, where two- and three-factor solutions predominate, although a one-dimensional structure has also been reported. On the other hand, there are few normative studies in the Spanish-speaking population, and, to our knowledge, there are no normative studies that contemplate the two versions of the WCST. The aim of the present study was to examine the factorial and convergent validity of the WCST in its computerized and manual version in children and to establish normative values for each version indicator according to age and sex. The sample consisted of 359 children aged 7 to 12, divided as follows: (1) manual WCST: 138 children aged 7 to 12 from both sexes and (2) computerized WCST: 221 children 7 to 12 from both sexes and. The inclusion criteria were the following: (1) children with no clinical, neurological, or psychiatric history; (2) who attend their school studies regularly; (3) without school repetition. The WCST in its two versions (computerized vs manual), the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) to assess children intellectual functioning, and the working memory (WM) subtask of the WISC-IV, the Stroop Color and Word test and the semantic and phonological verbal fluency (VF) test were administered to test the WCST convergent validity. Intellectual functioning (IQ) was within the normal range expected for the age of children who completed both versions of the WCST. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Pearson's bivariate correlations and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used. For both the computerized and the manual WCST, the parallel analysis yielded a one-dimensional solution, grouping efficient and inefficient responses, with Complete Categories (CC) being the indicator that obtained the most weight. When comparing the structure found for each version, it is observed that Total Correct (TC) weighed only in the computerized version of the WCST. Regarding the WCST convergent validity, the results with the computerized WCST indicated positive and significant relationships (r = .17 to r = .33) between Total Correct and Complete Categories of the WCST and IQ, MT, FV and Inhibition. In turn, Perseverative Responses, Perseverative Errors, and Non-Perseverative Errors, presented negative and low correlations (r = .17 to r = .29) with IQ, MT, and FV. For the manual WCST, only Complete Categories presented significant positive correlations (r = .20 to r = .39) with CI, FV, Inhibition and MT. The other indicators of the manual WCST presented negative correlations (r = .18 to r = .44) with CI, FV and MT. Regarding the factorial validity of the instrument, our results suggest that the structure of the WCST would be unidimensional in children, regardless of the type of version under analysis (i.e., manual vs. computerized). However, the relationship between WCST performance and the tasks that assess other cognitive processes differs depending on the version. Normative data is established for the first time for Argentine children for both versions. The results emphasize the importance of not considering both versions as interchangeable in child populations and interpreting each version according to its respectively norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]