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The EU Code of Practice on Disinformation has attempted to approach the issue of disinformation through a self-regulatory model, but this has seen limited success. We analyse 1114 self-reported actions from Code signatories (Google, Meta, Microsoft, Mozilla, TikTok and Twitter) taken from 47 monthly transparency reports addressing Covid-19 related disinformation. While the transparency reports were designed to provide clear, meaningful reporting, in reality the process of assessing each platform’s disinformation actions was difficult due to repetition, vague descriptions and a lack of quality data. Platform actions were often reported using a promotional tone and some were irrelevant to COVID-19 or disinformation. We argue that the way in which we understand the role that social media platforms play in both the collection of data and the social outcomes that result from these data extraction processes needs to be questioned. Drawing upon the concept of data colonialism, we call for transparent access to data based on the idea that what platforms view as property is based on a “commercially motivated form of extraction” rather than a “naturally occurring form of social knowledge”. European debates about regulating online disinformation need to be set against a broader perspective on regulating the digital environment as a public infrastructure. Policymakers can achieve better civic and democratic outcomes by focusing on regulating the digital environment through, for example, robust competition, data portability, and interoperability rules. Such actions have the potential to break the dominance of Big Tech while incentivising better and new services for citizens.

The insect-vectored, bacterial plant pathogenXylella fastidiosais currently absent from Scotland and the wider UK, but if introduced could be a serious threat to trees and other plants. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the ecology and distributions ofXylellavectors in Scotland and the potential effects of this on any outbreak of the disease, which this project aimed to address. Sampling of xylem-feeding potential vector insects (order Hemiptera, Aphrophoridae and Cicadellidae families) was conducted in 2021, including weekly sampling of different habitats at Loch Leven, Fife, and a wider survey across 16 sites in central Scotland. Overall, this project has produced better understanding of vector phenology, species composition and habitat preferences in Scotland, as well as guidance for sampling vectors and controlling future outbreaks. It highlights a previously unappreciated risk to Scottish heathland, though this should be set in the overall context of a less suitable climate forXylellaoutbreak growth and impact at present. Better understanding of vector dispersal ranges and ofXylellatransmission and disease progression in heathland plants under Scottish climatic conditions would further inform on the potential risk of introducingXylellato Scotland.

Ectomycorrhizae (EcM) are evolved mutualistic associations between soil fungi and plant roots. It has been shown that there can be species-specific differences in the ability to colonise roots. Colo­nised roots have increased longevity, greater resistance to pathogens, toxic elements in the soil and extreme con­ditions of temperature, acidity and moisture.EcM inocula are an essential resource in forest management. Nevertheless, measures being implemented worldwide to promote forest cover recovery to reduce atmospheric CO2 levels can cause ecological shifts. Shifts to ecological communities take place as species become more or less abundant, are wiped out or colonise new habitats. However, these changes may not be captured by metrics focusing on species richness alone.The lack of direct evidence of large-scale EcM temporal change in fungal community structure or function over time - commonly used in animal and plant research - is a basic, structural knowledge gap. Understanding temporal changes in community composition, whether via species losses and gains, or alterations to relative abundance and dominance is therefore essential to fathom the performance of terrestrial ecosystems, in particular the soil environment and its functions.This study will characterise EcM fungi in woodland sites of varying ages. This study uses a space-for-time approach, benefiting from a collection of sites part of a wider study on the biodiversity responses to woodland planting.