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BackgroundThough largely substance-naïve at enrollment, a proportion of the youth in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study are expected to initiate substance use (SU) as they transition into later adolescence. With annual data from youth 9-13 years-old, this study aims to describe their SU patterns over time. Here, prevalence rates of use are reported, along with predicted odds of use while analyzing common risk-factors associated with youth SU.MethodsThe ABCD Study® enrolled 11,876 participants at Baseline (ages 9-10) and has followed them annually. Data through half of the third follow-up visit are available (ages 12-13; n = 6,251). SU descriptives for al psychoactive substances over time are outlined. General estimating equations (GEEs) assessed whether sociodemographic factors, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and parental SU problems were associated with SU between Baseline and Y2 follow-up.ResultsAcross time, alcohol and nicotine remain the most used substances. Yearly rates of any SU increased (past year use: 13.9% in Y1; 14% Y2, 18.4% Y3). Cumulatively, by Y3, 39.7% of the cohort reported experimenting (e.g., sipping alcohol) with SU within their lifetime, while 7.4% reported a "full use" (a full alcohol drink, nicotine use, cannabis use, or any other SU) in their lifetime (past-year: 1.9% alcohol, 2.1% nicotine, 1.1% cannabis, 1.2% other substances). GEEs revealed ongoing longitudinal associations between sociodemographic factors, greater externalizing symptoms, and parental drug problems with increased odds of initiating SU.ConclusionsAs ABCD participants transition into their teenage years, the cohort is initiating SU at increasing (though still low) rates.

BackgroundAlthough a relatively large body of research has identified multiple factors associated with adolescent substance use, less is known about earlier substance-related factors during preadolescence, including curiosity to use substances. The present study examined individual-, peer-, and parent-level domains pertaining to substance use and how these domains vary by sociodemographic subgroups and substance type.MethodsParticipants were 11,864 9- and 10-year-olds from the baseline sample of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Youth-reported measures were curiosity to use substances and perceived peer substance use. Parent-reported measures were availability of and rules about substances. Generalized logistic mixed models (GLMM) were used to compare these measures across alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana and across sociodemographic subgroupings (sex, race/ethnicity, household income, and family history of alcohol problems). GLMM was then used to examine predictors of curiosity to use by substance type.ResultsThe most striking descriptive differences were found between race/ethnicity and income categories (e.g., positive associations between greater income and greater availability of alcohol). In multivariable analyses, greater curiosity to use alcohol was associated with being male, higher household income, perceived peer alcohol use, and easy alcohol availability; greater curiosity to use nicotine was associated with being male, perceived peer cigarette use, easy availability of cigarettes, and no parental rules about cigarette use.ConclusionsThis study identified substance use-related individual-, peer-, and parent-level factors among a diverse, national sample. Findings highlight the importance of considering sociodemographic and substance-specific variability and may help identify risk and protective factors preceding adolescent substance use.

Defining reference models for population variation, and the ability to study individual deviations is essential for understanding inter-individual variability and its relation to the onset and progression of medical conditions. In this work, we assembled a reference cohort of neuroimaging data from 82 sites (N=58,836; ages 2-100) and used normative modeling to characterize lifespan trajectories of cortical thickness and subcortical volume. Models are validated against a manually quality checked subset (N=24,354) and we provide an interface for transferring to new data sources. We showcase the clinical value by applying the models to a transdiagnostic psychiatric sample (N=1985), showing they can be used to quantify variability underlying multiple disorders whilst also refining case-control inferences. These models will be augmented with additional samples and imaging modalities as they become available. This provides a common reference platform to bind results from different studies and ultimately paves the way for personalized clinical decision-making.

Efficiency of evidence accumulation (EEA), an individual's ability to selectively gather goal-relevant information to make adaptive choices, is thought to be a key neurocomputational mechanism associated with cognitive functioning and transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology. However, the neural basis of individual differences in EEA is poorly understood, especially regarding the role of largescale brain network dynamics. We leverage data from 5198 participants from the Human Connectome Project and Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study to demonstrate a strong association between EEA and flexible adaptation to cognitive demand in the "task-positive" frontoparietal and dorsal attention networks. Notably, individuals with higher EEA displayed divergent task-positive network activation across n-back task conditions: higher activation under high cognitive demand (2-back) and lower activation under low demand (0-back). These findings suggest that brain networks' flexible adaptation to cognitive demands is a key neural underpinning of EEA. Analyses of fMRI data across two large samples show that people's cognitive efficiency, as measured by a computational model, is strongly related to the degree to which brain networks involved in cognitive control adapt to task difficulty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth self-reports are a mainstay of delinquency assessment; however, making valid inferences about delinquency using these assessments requires equivalent measurement across groups of theoretical interest. We examined whether a brief 10-item delinquency measure exhibited measurement invariance across non-Hispanic White (n = 6,064) and Black (n = 1,666) youth (ages 10–11 years old) in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development sm Study (ABCD Study®). We detected differential item functioning (DIF) in two items. Black youth were more likely to report being arrested or picked up by police than White youth with the same score on the latent delinquency trait. Although multiple covariates (income, urgency, and callous–unemotional traits) reduced mean-level difference in overall delinquency, they were generally unrelated to the DIF in the Arrest item. However, the DIF in the Arrest item was reduced in size and no longer significant after adjusting for neighborhood safety. Results illustrate the importance of considering measurement invariance when using self-reported delinquency scores to draw inferences about group differences, and the utility of measurement invariance analyses for helping to identify mechanisms that contribute to group differences generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Peer groups represent a critical developmental context in adolescence, and there are many well‐documented associations between personality and peer behavior at this age. However, the precise nature and direction of these associations are difficult to determine as youth both select into, and are influenced by, their peers. Method: We thus examined the phenotypic, genetic, and environmental links between antisocial and prosocial peer characteristics and several personality traits from middle childhood to late adolescence (ages 11, 14, and 17 years) in a longitudinal twin sample (N = 3762) using teacher ratings of personality and self‐reports of peer characteristics. Results: Less adaptive trait profiles (i.e., high negative emotionality, low conscientiousness, and low agreeableness) were associated with more antisocial and fewer prosocial peer characteristics across time. Associations between personality traits related to emotionality (negative emotionality and extraversion) and peer behavior were largely attributable to shared genetic influences, while associations between personality traits related to behavioral control (conscientiousness and agreeableness) and peer behavior were due to overlapping genetic and shared environmental influences. Conclusions: Overall, results suggest a set of environmental presses that push youth toward both behavioral undercontrol and antisocial peer affiliations, making the identification of such influences and their relative importance a critical avenue of future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Structural models of psychopathology consistently identify internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) specific factors as well as a superordinate factor that captures their shared variance, the p factor. Questions remain, however, about the meaning of these data-driven dimensions and the interpretability and distinguishability of the larger nomological networks in which they are embedded. Methods: The sample consisted of 10 645 youth aged 9–10 years participating in the multisite Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. p , INT, and EXT were modeled using the parent-rated Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Patterns of associations were examined with variables drawn from diverse domains including demographics, psychopathology, temperament, family history of substance use and psychopathology, school and family environment, and cognitive ability, using instruments based on youth-, parent-, and teacher-report, and behavioral task performance. Results: p exhibited a broad pattern of statistically significant associations with risk variables across all domains assessed, including temperament, neurocognition, and social adversity. The specific factors exhibited more domain-specific patterns of associations, with INT exhibiting greater fear/distress and EXT exhibiting greater impulsivity. Conclusions: In this largest study of hierarchical models of psychopathology to date, we found that p , INT, and EXT exhibit well-differentiated nomological networks that are interpretable in terms of neurocognition, impulsivity, fear/distress, and social adversity. These networks were, in contrast, obscured when relying on the a priori Internalizing and Externalizing dimensions of the CBCL scales. Our findings add to the evidence for the validity of p , INT, and EXT as theoretically and empirically meaningful broad psychopathology liabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having a family history of alcohol use problems (FH+) conveys risk for alcohol use in offspring. Reward-related brain functioning may play a role in this vulnerability. The present study investigated brain function in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) associated with the anticipation of reward in youth with two biological parents with alcohol use problems (FH+2), one biological parent with alcohol use problems (FH+1), and no biological parents with alcohol use problems (FH-). Participants were from the large, national Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (mean age: 9.93; 48% female; FH+2 n = 223, FH+1 n = 1447, FH- n = 9690) and the Michigan Longitudinal Study (MLS), consisting of community-recruited families with high rates of alcohol use disorder (mean age: 10.54; 39.3% female; FH+2 n = 40, FH+1 n = 51, FH- n = 40). Reward anticipation was measured by the monetary incentive delay task. Regression models were used to assess associations between FH status and the anticipation of large rewards in right and left NAcc regions of interest. In both studies, FH+2 youth showed blunted anticipatory reward responding in the right NAcc compared to FH+1 youth. In the MLS, FH+2 youth also had blunted anticipatory reward responding in the right NAcc compared to the FH- group. Convergent results across two separate samples provide insights into a unique vulnerability of FH+2 youth and suggest that binary FH+ versus FH- categorizations may obscure important differences within FH+ youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sleep is critical for healthy brain development and emotional wellbeing, especially during adolescence when sleep, behavior, and neurobiology are rapidly evolving. Theoretical reviews and empirical research have historically focused on how sleep influences mental health through its impact on higher-order brain systems. No studies have leveraged data-driven network neuroscience methods to uncover interpretable, brain-wide signatures of sleep duration in adolescence, their socio-environmental origins, or their consequences for cognition and mental health., Methods: Here, we implement graph theory and component-based predictive modeling to examine how a multimodal index of sleep duration is associated with intrinsic brain architecture in 3,173 youth (11-12 years) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development SM Study., Results: We demonstrate that network integration/segregation exhibit a strong, generalizable multivariate association with sleep duration. We next identify a single component of brain architecture centered on a single network as the dominant contributor of this relationship. This component is characterized by increasing disconnection of a lower-order system - the somatomotor network - from other systems, with shorter sleep duration. Finally, greater somatomotor disconnection is associated with lower socioeconomic resources, longer screen times, reduced cognitive/academic performance, and elevated externalizing problems., Conclusions: These findings reveal a novel neural signature of shorter sleep in adolescence that is intertwined with environmental risk, cognition, and psychopathology. By robustly elucidating the key involvement of an understudied brain system in sleep, cognition, and psychopathology, this study can inform theoretical and translational research directions on sleep to promote neurobehavioral development and mental health during the adolescent transition., Competing Interests: Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Adolescence is a period of growth in cognitive performance and functioning. Recently, data-driven measures of brain-age gap, which can index cognitive decline in older populations, have been utilized in adolescent data with mixed findings. Instead of using a data-driven approach, here we assess the maturation status of the brain functional landscape in early adolescence by directly comparing an individual's resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) to the canonical early-life and adulthood communities. Specifically, we hypothesized that the degree to which a youth's connectome is better captured by adult networks compared to infant/toddler networks is predictive of their cognitive development. To test this hypothesis across individuals and longitudinally, we utilized the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study at baseline (9-10 years; n = 6,489) and 2-year-follow-up (Y2: 11-12 years; n = 5,089). Adjusted for demographic factors, our anchored rsFC score (AFC) was associated with better task performance both across and within participants. AFC was related to age and aging across youth, and change in AFC statistically mediated the age-related change in task performance. In conclusion, we showed that a model-fitting-free index of the brain at rest that is anchored to both adult and baby connectivity landscapes predicts cognitive performance and development in youth.

Socioeconomic resources (SER) calibrate the developing brain to the current context, which can confer or attenuate risk for psychopathology across the lifespan. Recent multivariate work indicates that SER levels powerfully relate to intrinsic functional connectivity patterns across the entire brain. Nevertheless, the neuroscientific meaning of these widespread neural differences remains poorly understood, despite its translational promise for early risk identification, targeted intervention, and policy reform. In the present study, we leverage graph theory to precisely characterize multivariate and univariate associations between SER across household and neighborhood contexts and the intrinsic functional architecture of brain regions in 5,821 youth (9-10 years) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. First, we establish that decomposing the brain into profiles of integration and segregation captures more than half of the multivariate association between SER and functional connectivity with greater parsimony (100-fold reduction in number of features) and interpretability. Second, we show that the topological effects of SER are not uniform across the brain; rather, higher SER levels are associated with greater integration of somatomotor and subcortical systems, but greater segregation of default mode, orbitofrontal, and cerebellar systems. Finally, we demonstrate that topological associations with SER are spatially patterned along the unimodal-transmodal gradient of brain organization. These findings provide critical interpretive context for the established and widespread associations between SER and brain organization. This study highlights both higher-order and somatomotor networks that are differentially implicated in environmental stress, disadvantage, and opportunity in youth., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of National Academy of Sciences.)

Neural variability, or variation in brain signals, facilitates dynamic brain responses to ongoing demands. This flexibility is important during development from childhood to young adulthood, a period characterized by rapid changes in experience. However, little is known about how variability in the engagement of recurring brain states changes during development. Such investigations would require the continuous assessment of multiple brain states concurrently. Here, we leverage a new computational framework to study state engagement variability (SEV) during development. A consistent pattern of SEV changing with age was identified across cross-sectional and longitudinal datasets (N>3000). SEV developmental trajectories stabilize around mid-adolescence, with timing varying by sex and brain state. SEV successfully predicts executive function (EF) in youths from an independent dataset. Worse EF is further linked to alterations in SEV development. These converging findings suggest SEV changes over development, allowing individuals to flexibly recruit various brain states to meet evolving needs.

Importance: Most research to understand postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), or long COVID, has focused on adults, with less known about this complex condition in children. Research is needed to characterize pediatric PASC to enable studies of underlying mechanisms that will guide future treatment., Objective: To identify the most common prolonged symptoms experienced by children (aged 6 to 17 years) after SARS-CoV-2 infection, how these symptoms differ by age (school-age [6-11 years] vs adolescents [12-17 years]), how they cluster into distinct phenotypes, and what symptoms in combination could be used as an empirically derived index to assist researchers to study the likely presence of PASC., Design, Setting, and Participants: Multicenter longitudinal observational cohort study with participants recruited from more than 60 US health care and community settings between March 2022 and December 2023, including school-age children and adolescents with and without SARS-CoV-2 infection history., Exposure: SARS-CoV-2 infection., Main Outcomes and Measures: PASC and 89 prolonged symptoms across 9 symptom domains., Results: A total of 898 school-age children (751 with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection [referred to as infected] and 147 without [referred to as uninfected]; mean age, 8.6 years; 49% female; 11% were Black or African American, 34% were Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish, and 60% were White) and 4469 adolescents (3109 infected and 1360 uninfected; mean age, 14.8 years; 48% female; 13% were Black or African American, 21% were Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish, and 73% were White) were included. Median time between first infection and symptom survey was 506 days for school-age children and 556 days for adolescents. In models adjusted for sex and race and ethnicity, 14 symptoms in both school-age children and adolescents were more common in those with SARS-CoV-2 infection history compared with those without infection history, with 4 additional symptoms in school-age children only and 3 in adolescents only. These symptoms affected almost every organ system. Combinations of symptoms most associated with infection history were identified to form a PASC research index for each age group; these indices correlated with poorer overall health and quality of life. The index emphasizes neurocognitive, pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms in school-age children but change or loss in smell or taste, pain, and fatigue/malaise-related symptoms in adolescents. Clustering analyses identified 4 PASC symptom phenotypes in school-age children and 3 in adolescents., Conclusions and Relevance: This study developed research indices for characterizing PASC in children and adolescents. Symptom patterns were similar but distinguishable between the 2 groups, highlighting the importance of characterizing PASC separately for these age ranges.

Background: Early substance use initiation (SUI) places youth at substantially higher risk for later substance use disorders. Furthermore, adolescence is a critical period for the maturation of brain networks, the pace and magnitude of which are susceptible to environmental influences and may shape risk for SUI., Methods: We examined whether patterns of functional brain connectivity during rest (rsFC), measured longitudinally in pre-and-early adolescence, can predict future SUI. In an independent sub-sample, we also tested whether these patterns are associated with key environmental factors, specifically neighborhood pollution and socioeconomic dimensions. We utilized data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study ® . SUI was defined as first-time use of at least one full dose of alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, or other drugs. We created a control group ( N = 228) of participants without SUI who were matched with the SUI group ( N = 233) on age, sex, race/ethnicity, and parental income and education., Results: Multivariate analysis showed that whole-brain rsFC prior to SUI during 9-10 and 11-12 years of age successfully differentiated the prospective SUI and control groups. This rsFC signature was expressed more at older ages in both groups, suggesting a pattern of accelerated maturation in the SUI group in the years prior to SUI. In an independent sub-sample ( N = 2,854) and adjusted for family socioeconomic factors, expression of this rsFC pattern was associated with higher pollution, but not neighborhood disadvantage., Conclusion: Brain functional connectivity patterns in early adolescence that are linked to accelerated maturation and environmental exposures can predict future SUI in youth.

Importance: The prevalence, pathophysiology, and long-term outcomes of COVID-19 (post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 [PASC] or "Long COVID") in children and young adults remain unknown. Studies must address the urgent need to define PASC, its mechanisms, and potential treatment targets in children and young adults., Observations: We describe the protocol for the Pediatric Observational Cohort Study of the NIH's REsearching COVID to Enhance Recovery (RECOVER) Initiative. RECOVER-Pediatrics is an observational meta-cohort study of caregiver-child pairs (birth through 17 years) and young adults (18 through 25 years), recruited from more than 100 sites across the US. This report focuses on two of four cohorts that comprise RECOVER-Pediatrics: 1) a de novo RECOVER prospective cohort of children and young adults with and without previous or current infection; and 2) an extant cohort derived from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (n = 10,000). The de novo cohort incorporates three tiers of data collection: 1) remote baseline assessments (Tier 1, n = 6000); 2) longitudinal follow-up for up to 4 years (Tier 2, n = 6000); and 3) a subset of participants, primarily the most severely affected by PASC, who will undergo deep phenotyping to explore PASC pathophysiology (Tier 3, n = 600). Youth enrolled in the ABCD study participate in Tier 1. The pediatric protocol was developed as a collaborative partnership of investigators, patients, researchers, clinicians, community partners, and federal partners, intentionally promoting inclusivity and diversity. The protocol is adaptive to facilitate responses to emerging science., Conclusions and Relevance: RECOVER-Pediatrics seeks to characterize the clinical course, underlying mechanisms, and long-term effects of PASC from birth through 25 years old. RECOVER-Pediatrics is designed to elucidate the epidemiology, four-year clinical course, and sociodemographic correlates of pediatric PASC. The data and biosamples will allow examination of mechanistic hypotheses and biomarkers, thus providing insights into potential therapeutic interventions., Clinical Trials.gov Identifier: Clinical Trial Registration: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT05172011., Competing Interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: Brett Anderson reported receiving direct support for work not related to RECOVER work/publications from Genentech and the National Institute of Allergy and Immunology. Walter Dehority reported receiving grant support from Merck and participating in research for the Moderna COVID-19 pediatric vaccine trial and the Pfizer Paxlovid trial. Alex Fiks reported receiving support from NJM insurance and personal consulting fees not related to this paper from Rutgers University and the American Academy of Pediatrics. Ashraf Harahsheh reported serving as a scientific advisory board member unrelated to this paper for OP2 DRUGS. Lawrence Kleinman reported serving as an unpaid member of the Board of Directors for the DARTNet Institute, as a principle investigator at Quality Matters, Inc., and as the Vice Chair for the Borough of Metuchen Board of Health. Dr. Kleinman also reported grant support for work not related to RECOVER work/publications from NIH, HRSA, and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Dr. Kleinman also reported minority individual stock ownership in Apple Computer, Sanofi SA, Experion, GlaxoSmithKline, Magyar Bank, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, JP Morgan Chase, and Amgen Inc. Torri Metz reported participating as a Principle Investigator in the medical advisory board for the planning of a Pfizer clinical trial of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in pregnancy. She is also a principle investigator for a Pfizer study evaluating the pharmacokinetics of Paxlovid in pregnant people with COVID-19. Joshua Milner reported serving as a member of the Scientific Advisory Board for Blueprint Medicines, in a capacity unrelated to RECOVER work/publications. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials., (Copyright: © 2024 Gross et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)