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The NOEMA formIng Cluster survEy (NICE) is a large program targeting 69 massive galaxy group candidates at $z>2$ in six deep fields. We report spectroscopic confirmation of eight groups at $1.65\leq z\leq3.61$ in COSMOS. Homogeneously selected as significant overdensities of red IRAC sources with red Herschel colors, four groups are confirmed by CO and [CI] with NOEMA 3mm observations, three are confirmed with ALMA, and one is confirmed by H$\alpha$ from Subaru/FMOS. We constructed the integrated FIR SEDs for the eight groups, obtaining total IR SFR $=260-1300~{\rm M_\odot}$~yr$^{-1}$. We adopted six methods to estimate the dark matter masses, including stellar mass to halo mass relations, overdensity with galaxy bias, and NFW profile fitting to radial stellar mass density. We found the radial stellar mass density are consistent with a NFW profile, supporting that they are collapsed structures hosted by a single dark matter halo. The best halo mass estimates are $\log(M_{\rm h}/{\rm M_\odot})=12.8-13.7$ with uncertainty of 0.3 dex. From halo mass estimates, we derive baryonic accretion rate ${\rm BAR}=(1-8)\times10^{3}\,{\rm M_{\odot}/yr}$ for this sample. We find a quasi-linear correlation between the integrated SFR/BAR and the theoretical halo mass limit for cold streams, $M_{\rm stream}/M_{\rm h}$, with ${\rm SFR/BAR}=10^{-0.46\pm0.22}\left({M_{\rm stream}/M_{\rm h}}\right)^{0.71\pm0.16}$ with a scatter of $0.40\,{\rm dex}$. Further, we compare halo masses and stellar masses with simulations, and find all structures are consistent with being progenitors of $M_{\rm h}(z=0)>10^{14}\,{\rm M_{\odot}}$ galaxy clusters, and the most massive central galaxies have stellar masses consistent with brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) progenitors in the TNG300 simulation. The results strongly suggest these structures are forming massive galaxy clusters via baryonic and dark matter accretion., Comment: 44 pages (27pp appendix), 32 figures, 18 tables, accepted for publication in A&A

[Abridged] In recent years, conflicting results have provided an uncertain view of the dust-attenuated properties of $z>4$ star-forming galaxies (SFGs). To solve this, we used the deepest data publicly available in COSMOS to build a mass-complete ($>10^{9.5}\,M_{\odot}$) sample of SFGs at $4M_\ast)$ converges at $M_\ast<10^{9}\,M_\odot$ and is dominated by SFGs with $M_\ast\sim10^{9.5-10.5}\,M_\odot$. The fraction of the cosmic SFRD that is attenuated by dust, ${\rm SFRD}_{\rm IR}(>M_\ast)/ {\rm SFRD}(>M_\ast)$, is $90\pm4\%$ for $M_\ast\,=\,10^{10}\,M_\odot$, $68\pm10\%$ for $M_\ast=10^{8.9}\,M_\odot$ (i.e., $0.03\times M^\star$; $M^\star$ being the characteristic stellar mass of SFGs) and this value converges to $60\pm10\%$ for $M_\ast=10^{8}\,M_\odot$. Even at this early epoch, the fraction of the cosmic SFRD that is attenuated by dust remains thus significant., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A; 14 pages and 8 figures

We present a model of radio continuum emission associated with star formation (SF) and active galactic nuclei (AGN) implemented in the Shark semi-analytic model of galaxy formation. SF emission includes free-free and synchrotron emission, which depend on the free-electron density and the rate of core-collapse supernovae with a minor contribution from supernova remnants, respectively. AGN emission is modelled based on the jet production rate, which depends on the black hole mass, accretion rate and spin, and includes synchrotron self-absorption. Shark reproduces radio luminosity functions (RLFs) at 1.4 GHz and 150 MHz for 0 $\leq$ z $\leq$ 4, and scaling relations between radio luminosity, star formation rate and infrared luminosity of galaxies in the local and distant universe in good agreement with observations. The model also reproduces observed number counts of radio sources from 150 MHz to 8.4 GHz to within a factor of two on average, though larger discrepancies are seen at the very bright fluxes at higher frequencies. We use this model to understand how the radio continuum emission from radio-quiet AGNs can affect the measured RLFs of galaxies. We find current methods to exclude AGNs from observational samples result in large fractions of radio-quiet AGNs contaminating the "star-forming galaxies" selection and a brighter end to the resulting RLFs. We investigate how this effects the infrared-radio correlation (IRRC) and show that AGN contamination can lead to evolution of the IRRC with redshift. Without this contamination our model predicts a redshift- and stellar mass-independent IRRC, except at the dwarf-galaxy regime., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 17 pages, 7 figures

The tight relationship between infrared luminosity (L$_\mathrm{TIR}$) and 1.4 GHz radio continuum luminosity (L$_\mathrm{1.4GHz}$) has proven useful for understanding star formation free from dust obscuration. Infrared emission in star-forming galaxies typically arises from recently formed, dust-enshrouded stars, whereas radio synchrotron emission is expected from subsequent supernovae. By leveraging the wealth of ancillary far-ultraviolet - far-infrared photometry from the Deep Extragalactic VIsible Legacy Survey (DEVILS) and Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) surveys, combined with 1.4 GHz observations from the MeerKAT International GHz Tiered Extragalactic Exploration (MIGHTEE) survey and Deep Investigation of Neutral Gas Origins (DINGO) projects, we investigate the impact of timescale differences between far-ultraviolet - far-infrared and radio-derived star formation rate (SFR) tracers. We examine how the SED-derived star formation histories (SFH) of galaxies can be used to explain discrepancies in these SFR tracers, which are sensitive to different timescales. Galaxies exhibiting an increasing SFH have systematically higher L$_\mathrm{TIR}$ and SED-derived SFRs than predicted from their 1.4 GHz radio luminosity. This indicates that insufficient time has passed for subsequent supernovae-driven radio emission to accumulate. We show that backtracking the SFR(t) of galaxies along their SED-derived SFHs to a time several hundred megayears prior to their observed epoch will both linearise the SFR-L$_\mathrm{1.4GHz}$ relation and reduce the overall scatter. The minimum scatter in the SFR(t)-L$_\mathrm{1.4GHz}$ is reached at 200 - 300 Myr prior, consistent with theoretical predictions for the timescales required to disperse the cosmic ray electrons responsible for the synchrotron emission., Comment: 23 pages, 13 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Galaxy submillimetre number counts are a fundamental measurement in our understanding of galaxy evolution models. Most early measurements are obtained via single-dish telescopes with substantial source confusion, whereas recent interferometric observations are limited to small areas. We used a large database of ALMA continuum observations to accurately measure galaxy number counts in multiple (sub)millimetre bands, thus bridging the flux density range between single-dish surveys and deep interferometric studies. We continued the Automated Mining of the ALMA Archive in the COSMOS Field project (A$^3$COSMOS) and extended it with observations from the GOODS-South field (A$^3$GOODSS). The database consists of ~4,000 pipeline-processed continuum images from the public ALMA archive, yielding 2,050 unique detected sources. To infer galaxy number counts, we constructed a method to reduce the observational bias inherent to targeted pointings that dominate the database. This method comprises a combination of image selection, masking, and source weighting. The effective area was calculated by accounting for inhomogeneous wavelengths, sensitivities, and resolutions and for spatial overlap between images. We tested and calibrated our method with simulations. We derived the number counts in a consistent and homogeneous way in four different ALMA bands covering a relatively large area. The results are consistent with number counts from the literature within the uncertainties. In Band 7, at the depth of the inferred number counts, ~40% of the cosmic infrared background is resolved into discrete sources. This fraction, however, decreases with wavelength, reaching ~4% in Band 3. Finally, we used the number counts to test models of dusty galaxy evolution, and find a good agreement within the uncertainties., Comment: Published in A&A, 27 pages, 14 figures. Updated to match published version (added missing reference, updated Figure 7, minor textual adjustments; results unchanged). Catalogues are available at the CDS, see https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/A+A/685/A1 , and on the A$^3$COSMOS website, see https://sites.google.com/view/a3cosmos

We present the first spectroscopic ALMA follow-up for a pilot sample of nine Radio-Selected NIRdark galaxies in the COSMOS field. These sources were initially selected as radio-detected sources (S(3GHz)>12.65 uJy), lacking an optical/NIR counterpart in the COSMOS2015 catalog (Ks>24.7 mag), with just three of them subsequently detected in the deeper COSMOS2020. Several studies highlighted how this selection could provide a population of highly dust-obscured, massive, and star-bursting galaxies. With these new ALMA observations, we assess the spectroscopic redshifts of this pilot sample of sources and improve the quality of the physical properties estimated through SED-fitting. Moreover, we measure the quantity of molecular gas present inside these galaxies and forecast their potential evolutionary path, finding that the RS-NIRdark galaxies could represent a likely population of high-z progenitors of the massive and passive galaxies discovered at z~3. Finally, we present some initial constraints on the kinematics of the ISM within the analyzed galaxies, reporting a high fraction (~55%) of double-peaked lines that can be interpreted as the signature of a rotating structure in our targets or with the presence of major mergers in our sample. Our results presented in this paper showcase the scientific potential of (sub)mm observations for this elusive population of galaxies and highlight the potential contribution of these sources in the evolution of the massive and passive galaxies at high-z., Comment: 18 pages, 9 figures (+2 in the appendix), 6 tables. Accepted by A&A

The study of distant galaxy groups and clusters at the peak epoch of star formation is limited by the lack of a statistically and homogeneously selected and spectroscopically confirmed sample. Recent discoveries of concentrated starburst activities in cluster cores have opened a new window to hunt for these structures based on their integrated IR luminosities. Hereby we carry out the large NOEMA (NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array) program targeting a statistical sample of infrared-luminous sources associated with overdensities of massive galaxies at z>2, the Noema formIng Cluster survEy (NICE). We present the first result from the ongoing NICE survey, a compact group at z=3.95 in the Lockman Hole field (LH-SBC3), confirmed via four massive (M_star>10^10.5M_sun) galaxies detected in CO(4-3) and [CI](1-0) lines. The four CO-detected members of LH-SBC3 are distributed over a 180 kpc physical scale, and the entire structure has an estimated halo mass of ~10^13Msun and total star formation rate (SFR) of ~4000Msun/yr. In addition, the most massive galaxy hosts a radio-loud AGN with L_1.4GHz, rest = 3.0*10^25W/Hz. The discovery of LH-SBC3 demonstrates the feasibility of our method to efficiently identify high-z compact groups or forming cluster cores. The existence of these starbursting cluster cores up to z~4 provides critical insights into the mass assembly history of the central massive galaxies in clusters., Comment: 10 pages, 8 figures, published by A&A

We present well-resolved near-IR and sub-mm analysis of the three highly star-forming massive ($>10^{11}\,\rm M_{\odot}$) galaxies within the core of the RO-1001 galaxy group at $\rm z=2.91$. Each of them displays kpc-scale compact star-bursting cores with properties consistent with forming galaxy bulges, embedded at the center of extended, massive stellar disks. Surprisingly, the stellar disks are unambiguously both quiescent, and severely lopsided. Therefore, `outside-in' quenching is ongoing in the three group galaxies. We propose an overall scenario in which the strong mass lopsidedness in the disks (ranging from factors of 1.6 to $>$3), likely generated under the effects of accreted gas and clumps, is responsible for their star-formation suppression, while funnelling gas into the nuclei and thus creating the central starbursts. The lopsided side of the disks marks the location of accretion streams impact, with additional matter components (dust and stars) detected in their close proximity directly tracing the inflow direction. The interaction with the accreted clumps, which can be regarded as minor-mergers, leads the major axes of the three galaxies to be closely aligned with the outer Lyman-$\alpha$-emitting feeding filaments. These results provide the first observational evidence of the impact of cold accretion streams on the formation and evolution of the galaxies they feed. In the current phase, this is taking the form of the rapid buildup of bulges under the effects of accretion, while still preserving massive quiescent and lopsided stellar disks at least until encountering a violent major-merger., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

A mild correlation exists in active galaxies between the mean black hole accretion, as traced by the mean X-ray luminosity $\left<{\rm L}_{\rm X}\right>$, and the host galaxy stellar mass M$_*$, characterised by a normalisation steadily decreasing with cosmic time and lower in more quiescent galaxies. We create comprehensive semi-empirical mock catalogues of active black holes to pin down which parameters control the shape and evolution of the $\left<{\rm L}_{\rm X}\right>-{\rm M}_*$ relation of X-ray detected active galaxies. We find that the normalisation of the $\left<{\rm L}_{\rm X}\right>-{\rm M}_*$ relation is largely independent of the fraction of active galaxies (the duty cycle), but strongly dependent on the mean Eddington ratio, when adopting a constant underlying M$_{\rm BH}-{\rm M}_*$ relation as suggested by observational studies. The data point to a decreasing mean Eddington ratio with cosmic time and with galaxy stellar mass at fixed redshift. Our data can be reproduced by black holes and galaxies evolving on similar M$_{\rm BH}-{\rm M}_*$ relations but progressively decreasing their average Eddington ratios, mean X-ray luminosities, and specific star formation rates, when moving from the starburst to the quiescent phase. Models consistent with the observed $\left<{\rm L}_{\rm X}\right>-{\rm M}_*$ relation and independent measurements of the mean Eddington ratios, are characterised by M$_{\rm BH}-{\rm M}_*$ relations lower than those derived from dynamically measured local black holes. Our results point to the $\left<{\rm L}_{\rm X}\right>-{\rm M}_*$ relation as a powerful diagnostic to: 1) probe black hole-galaxy scaling relations and the level of accretion onto black holes; 2) efficiently break the degeneracies between duty cycles and accretion rates in cosmological models of black holes., Comment: Accepted for publication on MNRAS. 11 pages, 5 figures

We study stellar population and structural properties of massive $\log(M_{\star} / M_{\odot}) >11$ galaxies at $z\sim 2.7$ in the Magneticum and IllustrisTNG hydrodynamical simulations and GAEA semi-analytic model. We find stellar mass functions broadly consistent with observations, with no scarcity of massive, quiescent galaxies at $z\sim 2.7$, but with a higher quiescent galaxy fraction at high masses in IllustrisTNG. Average ages of simulated quiescent galaxies are between $\sim 0.8$ and 1.0 Gyr, older by a factor $\sim 2$ than observed in spectroscopically-confirmed quiescent galaxies at similar redshift. Besides being potentially indicative of limitations of simulations in reproducing observed star formation histories, this discrepancy may also reflect limitations in the estimation of observed ages. We investigate the purity of simulated UVJ rest-frame color-selected massive quiescent samples with photometric uncertainties typical of deep surveys (e.g., COSMOS). We find evidence for significant contamination (up to 60 percent) by dusty star-forming galaxies in the UVJ region that is typically populated by older quiescent sources. Furthermore, the completeness of UVJ-selected quiescent samples at this redshift may be reduced by 30 percent due to a high fraction of young quiescent galaxies not entering the UVJ quiescent region. Massive, quiescent galaxies in simulations have on average lower angular momenta and higher projected axis ratios and concentrations than star-forming counterparts. Average sizes of simulated quiescent galaxies are broadly consistent with observations within the uncertainties. The average size ratio of quiescent and star-forming galaxies in the probed mass range is formally consistent with observations, although this result is partly affected by poor statistics., Comment: 23 pages, 9 figures. Submitted to MNRAS

Active galactic nuclei (AGN) are typically identified through radio, mid-infrared, or X-ray emission or through the presence of broad and/or narrow emission lines. AGN can also leave an imprint on a galaxy's spectral energy distribution (SED) through the re-processing of photons by the dusty torus. Using the SED fitting code ProSpect with an incorporated AGN component, we fit the far ultraviolet to far-infrared SEDs of $\sim$494,00 galaxies in the D10-COSMOS field and $\sim$230,000 galaxies from the GAMA survey. By combining an AGN component with a flexible star formation and metallicity implementation, we obtain estimates for the AGN luminosities, stellar masses, star formation histories, and metallicity histories for each of our galaxies. We find that ProSpect can identify AGN components in 91 per cent of galaxies pre-selected as containing AGN through narrow-emission line ratios and the presence of broad lines. Our ProSpect-derived AGN luminosities show close agreement with luminosities derived for X-ray selected AGN using both the X-ray flux and previous SED fitting results. We show that incorporating the flexibility of an AGN component when fitting the SEDs of galaxies with no AGN has no significant impact on the derived galaxy properties. However, in order to obtain accurate estimates of the stellar properties of AGN host galaxies, it is crucial to include an AGN component in the SED fitting process. We use our derived AGN luminosities to map the evolution of the AGN luminosity function for $0