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This autoethnographic study examines powerviolence in the predominantly Hispanic unincorporated area of El Rio, California, from the perspective of a drummer in a local powerviolence band. The unique human geography of El Rio, characterized by its demographic composition, urban layout, and cultural practices, shapes sonic cartographies and influences how individuals understand sound. Situating powerviolence as a form of "borderlands noise-music," this article investigates the intersection of sound perception and cultural identity, particularly for Chicano noise musicians. By exploring how powerviolence subverts dominant music constructs through its sonic, linguistic, emotional, and iconographic elements, this article highlights the transformative potential of noise-music in marginalized communities. Drawing on a sonic lineage from hardcore punk to powerviolence in California, commonalities among hardcore punk, thrashcore, grindcore, and powerviolence are illuminated, providing a basis for understanding powerviolence through sound. Furthermore, this study foregrounds the significance of powerviolence and noise-music as accessible forms of expression, particularly for aspiring musicians who lack the means to pursue formal study. By amplifying voices that may otherwise go unheard, powerviolence allows noise musicians to feel audible to dominant capitalist society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Talent identification and development systems (TIDS) adopt a deterministic perspective (i.e. athletes' future state/performances can be predicted by observations of their initial state/performance), which encourages early identification and specialisation in sport. In this framework, the main aim of sport systems is to enhance predictability and reduce uncertainty, by investigating the causal relationship between entering a talent pathway and becoming an expert performer. Generally, athletes who display ideal body proportions and attain certain performance standards in early developmental stages are labelled as talented (i.e. they display the potential to succeed) and are selected by TIDS, which afford them a superior developmental opportunity (i.e. better training facilities, certified coaching staff, and higher competition levels), to realise their potential. A deterministic approach, thus, (a) sees talent as a fixed capacity, whereby future successful athletes can be identified early (i.e. early identification); and (b) considers entering at an earlier age in a talent pathway a pre-requisite for sporting success (i.e. early specialisation). Contrary to deterministic expectations, recent research has highlighted how being considered talented from the early stages does not guarantee a better likelihood of successfully achieve senior sporting success. In this paper, taking ideas from ecological anthropology, a new probabilistic approach is proposed which considers TIDS as a process (i.e. being talented is about remaining responsive to what you could become), dialogical (i.e. athlete selection and development are not done in isolation, but both influenced by sociocultural constraints), and open-ended (i.e. unpredictability related to future outcomes). If sport systems embrace the uncertainty of developmental pathways opportunities arise to participate in conversations across and within TIDS to support systemic change. We conclude by proposing four key foundations of any probabilistic TIDS: give sport back to kids, ethos of amateurism, delaying selection processes, and early diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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When an appellate court ruled that amateur athletics involves work outside the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) in Berger v. National Collegiate Athletic Association it relied on Vanskike v. Peters, where a prisoner lost his FLSA case for minimum wages. Vanskike invoked the Thirteenth Amendment's slavery exception, which allows for compulsory prison labor as punishment for a crime. Citing Vanskike, Berger said that the FLSA failed "to capture the true nature of the relationship between student athletes and their schools and is not a helpful guide." The Third Circuit is hearing a similar case in Johnson v. National Collegiate Athletic Association. To show that Berger erred by equating prison and college athletic labor, I trace the origins of the slavery exception to the Ordinance of 1787, which prohibited slavery and involuntary labor in the Northwest Territory except as punishment for a crime. In 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation drew directly from the Ordinance. After the Civil War, Congress used these sources for the Thirteenth Amendment. More recently, courts have applied this narrow exception in prison labor cases. Using archival records and photos, I develop a parallel timeline for college athletics, beginning at Harvard in 1800. Blacks were largely excluded from athletics, a byproduct of slavery and segregation. College athletics grew in a white space of privilege until the 1960s. From its inception in 1906, the NCAA has fused amateurism to a racialized ideology of athletic competition. As university leaders embraced eugenics, they unabashedly said that the white race could be preserved by promoting collegiate athletics in a racialized context. More recently, economists have shown that the NCAA's amateur model transfers billions of dollars, largely from Black football and men's basketball players to white coaches and white athletes in non-revenue sports. Comparing more than two centuries of legal developments in the slavery exception doctrine to college athletics, I show that the NCAA's amateurism rules and systemic racism in college athletics have always co-existed. Berger's heavy reliance on Vanskike has thrown an unexpected light on the racially biased implications of wageless college athletics by comparing amateurism to involuntary prison work. In Johnson, the Third Circuit should explicitly reject Berger and its faulty reliance on Vanskike by recalling the words of Lincoln in the Emancipation Proclamation, that formerly enslaved persons should "labor faithfully for reasonable wages. " (emphasis added). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Russian Empire was based, since the early years of the nineteenth century, mainly on military force, in the composition of which an important role was played by the accumulation of information on opponents and the fight against foreign espionage inside the country. Despite the central role attributed to these secret services, the Russian Empire did not have a specialized body in the field of military espionage. In this context, based on a vast and new Russian historiographical material, accumulated as a result of research by the National Archives of the Republic of Moldova, the author presents, by the method of analysis of historical documents, a perspective of the genesis, activity and results obtained by the Russian intelligence and counter-espionage services of the tsarist period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Russian Empire was based, since the early years of the nineteenth century, mainly on military force, in the composition of which an important role was played by the accumulation of information on opponents and the fight against foreign espionage inside the country. Despite the central role attributed to these secret services, the Russian Empire did not have a specialized body in the field of military espionage. In this context, based on a vast and new Russian historiographical material, accumulated as a result of research by the National Archives of the Republic of Moldova, the author presents, by the method of analysis of historical documents, a perspective of the genesis, activity and results obtained by the Russian intelligence and counter-espionage services of the tsarist period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Family historians are a large and often neglected group of historical researchers. They have a strongly articulated sense of their practice, and a well-developed set of methodologies and research apparatuses. They mostly work on their own, or in partnership with other family members, and are associated with public libraries, archives and local historical societies. They are a community who are situated outside the academy, often marginalised by the mainstream. They have been dismissed for their naiveté and amateurism and are ridiculed for seeking emotional connections with the past lives of their forebears. The research practice and interests of family historians are often defined as unscientific, uncritical, emotional and of little value to the academy or anyone else bar their own family group. We interrogate these assumptions here and show how family history is enabling a huge number of people to think historically and to produce distinctive forms of historical understanding that challenge academic monopoly of historical knowledge. The essay considers the working practices of family historians and elaborates some of the key ways that family history work provides models for socially engaged research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes how professional wrestling expanded stereotyped race, national, and class images toward the Spanish public in the first two decades of the twentieth century. The professional wrestling circuit of music halls, theaters, and circuses helped connect a myriad of grappling practices spanning different national traditions. Nonetheless, it also helped convey different racial, ethnic, and national images within a frame of social class divide at a time of rampant imperialism and colonial domination. In this context, Spain experimented with a short-lived wrestling mania, with several international wrestling tournaments and jujutsu exhibitions before World War I. In these tournaments, both fighters and patrons exploited racial stereotypes as a way to better sell the activity to the paying audience, connecting with, but also reinforcing, the perceptions that populated the collective imagination about different people, due to ethnicity or nationality linked also to social class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 1950s and 1960s, rural radio networks were erected all across China, operated and maintained by local residents who worked as technicians, correspondents, and broadcasters. This article introduces the radio network as a complex and diverse technological infrastructure for the socialist masses. The content of broadcasting was never uniform; rather, each county, town, village, and even the individual broadcaster had a say in what sounds came out of their loudspeakers. Accordingly, the Chinese socialist soundscape was not only peppered with quotation songs and political slogans but also contained music and traditional opera, useful information, and occasionally the relay of foreign radio stations. Radio networks brought people together as members and active builders of the new society. While the extant historiography understands the socialist masses as a political and social category, this article argues that it was also constructed as a technological one. The socialist citizenry was often defined by its involvement in state-led infrastructure projects such as the radio network; in turn, as people strove to build and run their own radio networks, they spontaneously took part in assembling and buttressing the infrastructure that underpinned the socialist state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Article outlines potential antitrust law claims arising from the NCAA's current regulation of college athletes' name, image and likeness ("NIL"). 2021 was a watershed year for the NCAA. First, it lost 9-0 at the Supreme Court in NCAA v. Alston, an antitrust law case challenging its restrictions on education-related compensation to college athletes. Days later, the effectuation of state laws recognizing college athletes' right to profit from their NIL began. Following its Supreme Court defeat, the NCAA acquiesced from its historic amateurism policy and released an interim policy allowing NCAA athletes to financially benefit from their NIL while remaining eligible. The NCAA provided updated guidance on the policy in 2022, restricting how schools, conferences, and college athletes can engage in the NIL marketplace. This Article examines the antitrust law challenges that could emerge under the NCAA's new restrictions on college athletes' NIL rights. Part I discusses the Supreme Court's decision in NCAA v. Board of Regents for the University of Oklahoma and the marketplace for schools' sport broadcast rights that followed. Part II outlines the legislation and litigation that led the NCAA to change its NIL policy. Part III overviews the marketplace for NIL that subsequently emerged. Part IV discusses the potential antitrust law violations existing under the NCAA's new regulation of college athletes' NIL. Part V concludes with recommendations for the NCAA, athletics departments, conferences and college athletes to address the potential antitrust law violations and explains why Congress should not grant the NCAA antitrust immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What should professional development of knowledge and skills of academic sport scientists look like? We address this question by first dwelling in what 'being a professional academic' entails. Professionals work methodically, typically specialising their knowledge and skills while strategically planning how to progress their careers, often not rocking the boat of the academic discipline they call home. To gain promotion, they expertly work within predetermined disciplinary boundaries, and are typically adjudged on objectified metrics that demonstrate a 'track record' in meeting professional standards, closely linked to university performance measures. Disciplinisation and performance evaluation becomes an issue, though, when rules, regulations and conventions prevent academics from exploring beyond their disciplinary walls, instead being lulled into playing the game. The amateur, in contrast, typically studies for the love of it, enthusiastically embodying their interest as a way of life, maintaining the highest standards of knowing-in-becoming. This passionate exploration is not limited by disciplinary conventions or performance metrics, but by how far they wish to roam through boundaries of knowing. They are, in other words, a wayfinder, making their way through life by corresponding with what holds their interest as they go. Never neglecting the ethos of amateurism, we contend its potential value for professional development of academic sport scientists, embracing – and perhaps even rekindling – a love of continued learning with and from those we encounter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historians of the Enlightenment are stymied by Denis Diderot's cloven polymathy. An insoluble dilemma arises between, on one hand, the amazing range of interests attested in his roles as both editor and contributor for the Encyclopédie and, on the other hand, his incorrigible dilettantism, in the centrifugal and often inconclusive pursuit of whatever topic came his way. We will do better to relinquish synthesis and highlight instead the multiplicity and versatility of Diderot's productive exuberance as such. We can then see how, rather than build arguments, he metabolized ideas into designs exhibiting a constantly increasing complexity that matched his inexhaustible energy. We can also appreciate his lifelong habit of writing in response to outside, and more or less random, prompts and assignments. An accidental polymath, Diderot preferred the pursuit of a train of thought over disciplined conclusiveness: witness his preference for dialogue over more integrative forms driven by argumentative power. A stranger to disciplinary methodology, he would nowadays be a journalist, not an academic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1954, Parliament was divided over Roger Bannister's appearance on an American television programme and how it would portray the nation to the world. This moment, and others like it across the decades, show Bannister to be a significant figure in the collective British identity, and as such, one in need of careful examination. The following work examines statements from both Houses positioning Bannister as synecdoche, a rhetorical device in which a single instance or representative is used as archetype of the larger whole. Findings from this examination revealed two themes: first, Bannister's newfound glory reflected the best of Britain, and second because of the first, his status, and by proxy Britain's status, should be carefully managed. These findings demonstrate the ways in which Parliament used Bannister to idealise, shape, and manage British identity. To conclude, we consider how athletes like Bannister may serve such purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This manuscript is a case study into public responses to an amateurism transgression committed by Chase Young, a former Ohio State University football player and Heisman candidate. In November of 2019, Young utilized his personal Twitter to announce an amateurism transgression stemming from his acceptance of an improper loan. This study considers 1,674 public and direct replies to Young on Twitter. A variety of themes were identified, including attempts to support Young, externalize the blame, dispute Young's story, exchange information, communicate ambiguously, and contemplate consequences of the transgression. Utilizing social identity theory and identity threat management, public expressions of fandom were positioned as a variable that explained the diversity in responses to Young's transgression. Indeed, findings illustrated in-group and out-group biases, whereby Ohio State fans supported Young and fans of other teams disputed his story. Interestingly non-expressed fans engaged in image repair on Young's behalf via externalizing blame to other institutions, especially the NCAA, which may demonstrate the interplay of multifaceted identities. Results from this manuscript help lay the groundwork for audience-centered efforts to understand athlete transgressions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to examine how the principle of amateurism in Israeli sport dwindled during the country's first two decades. To understand the change that took place in the attitude toward this principle, we present two events from the world of basketball: the Harlem Globetrotters visit to Israel in 1955 and the establishment of the European Professional Basketball League in 1975. These two events shared some similarities: both represented American culture and both operated contrary to the principle of amateurism. This article discusses the special significance attributed to the principle of amateurism in Israel and its gradual erosion due to the Americanization of Israeli society. The article also investigates the efforts to establish the professional league and the factors that led to its failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peru's democracy is dying. The country made international headlines after a cycle of political instability that left behind seven presidents in seven years, a failed coup, and 60 people dead after violent protests and brutal repression by the government. However, unlike the usual stories about democracy falling prey to the military or a popular strongman dismantling it from within, Peru's democracy is dying not from power concentration but from power dilution. Electoral fragmentation, political amateurism, and weak linkages with society have left politics populated by politicians willing to break democratic norms to make short-term gains. We call that process "democratic hollowing." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that music criticism from the early 1990s was central to media backlash against feminism in this period. As Daphne A. Brooks has noted, music criticism remains widely untheorized, despite being so entangled with the sustainability of popular music. In this article, I give focused attention to a small body of critical writing, exploring the relationship between recordings and the reviews that describe and evaluate the music. I present a reading of backlash against the riot grrrl band Bratmobile from 1993 to 1994, including reviews from the zines Cake, Snipe Hunt, trust kill and Genetic Disorder as well as from Artforum, SPIN and Option. I apply Janice A. Radway's concept of 'rhetorical containment' to this set of criticism, highlighting shared critical manoeuvres evident in the reviews. This builds on Peter Szendy's idea of 'punctuation' as that which shapes phrasing in a dialogue; on one level, criticism of Bratmobile punctuated the musical releases by legitimizing them and by reinforcing key themes in the music. But the critics also undermined the band in ways both subtle and explicit. I conclude by suggesting that critical backlash against riot grrrl can be understood as a matter of power and solidarity, with every critical utterance containing elements of both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In college football, winning begets winning and losing begets losing. So why did the University of Minnesota, no doubt among college football's elite before World War II, not follow this rich-get-richer trajectory, and what does their descent suggest about the nature of college football? Minnesota fell because of their reluctance to change in a rapidly changing world. College football evolved especially quickly after World War II, but Minnesota's famous football coach, Bernie Bierman, and the new university president, James Morrill, clung to notions of college football that had been popular before the war but were antiquated after it. Bierman continued to deploy old-fashioned strategies, while Morrill's persistent advocacy for the less-commercialized rules of the pre–World War II era hampered recruiting and discouraged the best young coaches from working at Minnesota. The school's unique fall suggests that college football rewards conformity, that unilateral attempts to change the game will fail, and that conservatism has an enduring cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Dialogue: Canadian Philosophical Review is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article investigates the reproduction of the foundational terrain of media work as composed of amateur and professional realms through the youth movement of amateur journalism in the late 19th-Century United States. Amateur journalists wrote, typeset and printed journals of essays, commentary, word puzzles and stories, which were circulated primarily among themselves in subcultural networks of reciprocity. A broad cultural analysis characterizes how debates about social change due to industrialization shaped definitions and valuations of amateurism and professionalism. A critical political-economic analysis examines how these changes and debates as refracted and reproduced through the commercialization of literary industries and printing technologies spawned amateur journalism. A critical analysis of surviving autobiographical works by amateur journalists of the day explores the on-the-ground cultural production of amateurism and professionalism through amateur journalism's ascendance, peak and decline. The article concludes by reflecting on the value of these findings for understanding today's media terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of several national court rulings, the NCAA revised its bylaws regarding student-athletes. Student-athletes are now being paid money by third-party interests for use of their name, image, and or likeness (NILs) in an endeavor to sell products, services, and student brands. Students advertise their NILs on social media and contract with local, state, and national vendors to endorse products. It is certainly beneficial for student-athletes, parents, families, and even local communities to profit from their work and athleticism. However, important concerns have been left out of the NILs discussion by the academy, the media, the NCAA, and academic journals. This article examines the impact NCAA rule changes have on college students in the classroom as well as the impact on faculty and administration. The probability exists of increased cheating, gender bias, and pressure on instructors who will be caught in the middle between money and grades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2015, the National Labor Relations Board ("NLRB" or "the Board") declined to assert jurisdiction over a group of football players at Northwestern University; yet, the following year, the NLRB asserted jurisdiction over a group of student assistants at Columbia University. In the past several years, there has been a proliferation of organizing among student assistants, but virtually no attempts to unionize by collegiate athletes. This Note urges the NLRB to adopt the standard it applied when asserting jurisdiction over undergraduate and graduate assistants to players on collegiate athletic teams. Alternatively, the NLRB should make a new rule categorically asserting jurisdiction over all labor disputes involving collegiate athletes at Division I schools. Looking to the treatment of student assistants as an exemplar, a common-law "right to control" test will find that collegiate athletes qualify as statutory employees, and therefore receive protections for employment-related activities. Adopting this rule will serve to further the purposes of the National Labor Relations Act ("NLRA" or "the Act") because collegiate players will be able to rely upon it as they engage in concerted activities such as collective bargaining. Asserting jurisdiction is more necessary now than ever due to the dwindling persuasiveness of the amateur model on which collegiate sportsrely. Going through the rulemaking process will also mitigate the NLRB's tendency to fluctuate wildly with shifts in political control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the four decades straddling the turn of the nineteenth century, the small Ontario town of Niagara-on-the-Lake experienced marked growth in its tourism industry. Catering predominantly to wealthy upper-middle-class Canadian and American visitors, the lake-side settlement offered numerous opportunities for polite recreation. Chief among them was lawn tennis, a sport that sat somewhat outside of the mainstream in terms of its high-class, mixed-sex participation demographic. While its players were imbued with a strong amateur philosophy, local boosters recognized the sport's potential to generate tourism income through its two tournaments, but this hinged on the outward presentation among its players/guests of refined gentility—a reflection of both class and gender—both on and off the court. This article considers how lawn tennis tournaments fit into the town's burgeoning tourism industry, and examines gender relations—particularly the role of women—in relation to this development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Other Modernities / Altre Modernita / Otras Modernidades / Autres Modernités is the property of Altre Modernita and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

During the first Getúlio Vargas administration (1930–1945), professional sport was established in Brazil. In a regime deeply marked by its pro-labour policies, one may at first think that professionalism was supported by the national government. However, that was not the case in Brazil. The struggle between professionals and amateurs created a schism in Brazilian sports that would last from 1933 to 1937 and that would still reverberate in the governmental intervention in sports in 1941. This article aims to analyse the relationship of Brazilian football ruling elites and the populist government of Getúlio Vargas in order to understand not only the top-down mobilization of sports by the authoritarian government of Vargas, but also the bottom-up initiatives that led the agents of the football elites to press for their own agendas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serbian clubs in Vienna are cultural, artistic, and sports organisations formed in the 1970s by Yugoslav guest workers, then called Yugoslav clubs. Since the 1990s, due to significant socio-political changes in the home country, the work policies of clubs in Vienna have changed, and they have become Serbian clubs. To learn traditional singing within the folklore sections of the mentioned clubs, the leaders hire pedagogues from Serbia - ethnomusicologists or individuals with completed secondary music schools in the departments of traditional sing­ing. This paper aims to present and analyse several aspects of learning traditional singing in these institutions, focusing on the exchange of different forms of capi­tal - from economic to symbolic and vice versa and reviewing the role of individ­uals in these systems.

“Parole rubate. Rivista internazionale di studi sulla citazione” / “Purloined Letters. An International Journal of Quotation Studies”: end of the first series, quotation and plagiarism, amateurism and multidisciplinary approach.

With the rise of television in late 1950s and 1960s Japan, television documentary became the focus of multiple debates as a fledgling genre. This article examines two television documentary series, Japan Unmasked (Nihon no sugao) and Non-Fiction Theatre (Non-fikushon gekijō), and the discourse surrounding them, particularly the Japan Unmasked debate. In the debate, Hani Susumu emphasized that the political significance of television documentary lies in amateurs' attempts to capture their experiences using the unfamiliar camera and microphone. This emphasis on amateurism, however, involved problems: the growth of amateurs into professionals and their loss of an autonomous position within the corporate structure. Calling upon the legacy of left-wing political avant-garde work, Ushiyama Jun'ichi, the father of Non-Fiction Theatre, responded to the issue by inviting filmmakers with political voices such as Ōshima Nagisa to television documentary. The debates, from amateurism in Japan Unmasked to auteurism in Non-Fiction Theatre, sought the political possibility of television documentary as a changing force on people's views towards the everyday world. This article argues that the resulting implementation of multimedia auteurism, television documentary made by a political auteur, was integral to continuing audio-visual experimentation in the new-born genre, which was in danger of being lost in the development of the television industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are approximately 160,000 student-athletes participating in NCAA-sanctioned sports. In order to preserve their status as amateurs, the NCAA has historically prohibited student-athletes from earning certain forms of compensation during college. Demand for college sports has grown exponentially over the last fifty years, and it has become a billion-dollar industry. Despite large revenues, student-athletes still face industry-wide limits on compensation. Considering recent precedent and the NCAA’s Interim Name, Image, and Likeness Policy of 2021, this Comment proposes a rule change permitting a college to provide student-athletes a stipend for its use of their name, image, and likeness in sports broadcasts. This would create a more equitable revenue distribution system while maintaining the amateurism principle that the NCAA was founded on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of SPORMETRE: The Journal of Physical Education & Sport Sciences / Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi is the property of SPORMETRE: The Journal of Physical Education & Sport Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Research question: The purpose of this study was to explore how the unionization movement of Northwestern University (NU) football players in the NCAA almost disrupted the institution of US collegiate sports that would challenge the amateur rules for student-athletes. Research methods: Qualitative research methods were employed, by collecting data from print media and content analysis. Results and findings: Data analysis revealed that six themes: Athletics versus Academics, Important Rulings (or decisions) that affected the Outcomes of Unionization, The Perspective Opinions of the Unionization Movement, Scholarship as an Employee Contract, Athletes as Employees, and The NCAA Prioritize their Bottom Line. Implications: The disruption that occurred highlights the challenge of the amateur rules that are imposed by the NCAA to its athletes, while also bringing the forefront the focus of the NCAA and its bottom financial line. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The French sportsman Frantz Reichel (1871–1932) was the leading sporting intellectual in France in the early twentieth century. His thought had a lasting effect on public policy beyond his sudden death in 1932. An Olympic athlete, he was the strongest advocate of the ideology of amateurism between the wars. Using his position as sports editor of Le Figaro and as the head of the Comité Olympique Français, he defended his ideology against attacks from socialist critics as well as those on the extreme right who advocated professionalism in team sports. The monument erected to him in the west of Paris acted as a symbolic place of ritual for those who supported the ideology of amateurism and a return to what they considered to be the traditional values of France. Despite the monument's partial destruction in 1941, Reichel's ideas had a direct influence on the Vichy regime's sporting révolution nationale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]