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This paper presents insights from two interview studies with the aim of shedding light on the learning potential of studying abroad in an area where English is used as a lingua franca. The majority of previous research on study abroad focuses on students' experiences of studying abroad in target-language regions, for example learners of English studying abroad in English-speaking countries. To date, the learning potential of spending time in English as a lingua franca (ELF) contexts remains an under-researched area. The present paper draws on two separate interview studies that have been conducted with five Turkish and five Swiss study abroad students that stayed in different European ELF contexts as part of their studies at higher education institutions. The data suggests that even though the participants still partially adhere to native speaker norms, they also discuss a number of characteristics of English as a lingua franca study abroad (ELFSA) contexts that they deem conducive to learning English and enhancing their plurilingual competences.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and reflect on the position of what are called second additional languages in the language teaching landscape of South African schools. This landscape is crowded, with different South African languages vying for attention. Amidst efforts to increase the number of learners who offer an African language as one of the subjects in the school exit examination, initiatives to introduce languages like Mandarin and Swahili put additional pressure on an already over-burdened system. The paper considers this crowded landscape and the implications for the teaching of German, French and Mandarin at secondary school level. These are only three of at least fifteen languages offered as second additional languages. This paper focuses on these three because they are most widely taught in mainstream schools. The policies and practices as well as the problems with teaching these languages are described, focusing on the types of learner who will choose these languages, the approach to teaching them and possible actions that could ensure the continued offering of second additional languages at primary and secondary schools.

Both participation and argumentation (OECD, 2022) are important keywords in educational contexts. While participation is seen as a crucial prerequisite for education and collaborative learning in general, argumentation as a discursive practice serves to convey and negotiate--also school-specific--knowledge. This paper explores repetition in argumentative events as a technique of establishing--or even hindering--participation in terms of alignment and affiliation. It can serve as a strategy for participation by signalling responsiveness and thematic coherence--and thus inclusion. At the same time, however, studies show that repetition can also signal contradiction and rejection--and thus exclusion. So far, we know little about how exactly these functional differences are produced--especially in younger children. Therefore, the paper explores how children use repetition as a resource for negotiating participation in argumentative events. Using authentic data in the form of observations and transcriptions of audio and video recordings from child-child-interactions of 15 Hebrew- and 31 German-speaking children aged 3-6 years, we identify oral argumentative events and investigate different forms of repetitions and their respective relevance for enabling participation. Our results show that, on the one hand, minimal and partial repetitions are used by the children in an inclusive way, creating closeness between the participants. On the other hand, children use complete repetitions more as an excluding technique, displaying misalignment and disaffiliation, in order to challenge and mock each other. The findings suggest that this line of research has significant potential to provide new insights into the formation of social relationships between peers, into the prevention or establishment of participation, which itself is a prerequisite for joint learning, as well as insights into the acquisition of argumentative competence.

There is a need for a continued focus on language learning in advanced language classes beyond the foundations that are formed in the beginning and intermediate levels. Despite this need, little work exists on how to implement language-focused instruction in upper-level courses. As one possible solution, this paper outlines a functional, meaning-based approach to teaching language that could be easily adopted by all instructors, regardless of their professional training and/or research interests. As an example of this approach, the study described in this paper investigates the instruction of Subjunctive 1 through its function as indirect speech in a literary context. Eight participants in a fourth-semester German course engaged with the Subjunctive 1 form through a lesson focused on Kafka's authorial choices in the text "Vor dem Gesetz" that create a sense of uncertainty. This approach complements the traditional teaching of Subjunctive 1, such as in journalistic contexts, by centering it as a tool for meaning making in an author's lexicogrammatical toolkit. An analysis of pre/posttests that included both quantitative and qualitative data was used to assess the effectiveness of the approach. The results indicate an overall positive effect for the instruction but also individual variation by the learner. These findings support both the utility of and need for functional, meaning-based approaches in upper-level courses. Finally, I discuss how this type of approach could be adopted for any linguistic feature and by any instructor teaching advanced courses to support students' linguistic growth throughout the curriculum.

This conceptual research analyses the historical development of the German concept of "Bildung" to the Danish "dannelse." The starting point is J.G. Fichte's 1808 "Addresses to the German Nation," in which "Bildung" is analyzed as a key concept. The paper illustrates the influence Fichte had on N.F.S. Grundtvig, the "father of modern Denmark," with important adaptations based on English liberties and Nordic mythology. Grundtvig's "dannelse" is then analyzed based on his 1832 "milestone" work, "Nordic Mythology." The paper finds that "Bildung" and "dannelse" can be considered parallel concepts of similarity in their shared emphasis on the mother-tongue as a "living language," and focus on social cohesion. However, "Bildung" and "dannelse" can also be characterized as concepts of difference, in that: 1) "dannelse" popularized "Bildung," meaning that it was not just for the academic bourgeoisie, but the entire "folk"; 2) freedom of expression is fundamental to "dannelse," in contrast to the stability of will and moral order in "Bildung;" 3) in "dannelse," national unity is expanded to a wider circle of belonging, the whole of humankind; 4) Nordic mythology is a social cohesive in "dannelse," to contrast Fichte's more rational conception of "Bildung." Written by a British author for an English-speaking readership, this research does not feign to be more than a prefatory glance at two rich and complex concepts. However, in shedding light on the historical development of "Bildung" to "dannelse," it aspires to edge readers closer toward a shared conceptual understanding or, more aptly, to better understand misunderstandings.

Foreign language learning is highly interactive and requires opportunities for academic speaking. The focus of this paper is how foreign language undergraduate students experienced this process in an online learning context. Through semi-structured interviews with seven undergraduate French, German and Spanish students, participants highlighted the challenges of speaking in a foreign language in an online environment and articulated the need for speaking skills which could compensate for the lack of visual clues. Drawing on the Oracy Skills Framework, this study suggests that certain skills were particularly pertinent and others could be added to fully reflect the reality of engaging in oral communication in an online environment. The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, we propose an adapted Oracy Skills Framework for a foreign language learning context which is timely and relevant for both online and face-to-face contexts. Second, we suggest ways in which teachers and students in higher education can support foreign language learners in speaking in online spaces.

Introduction: This paper presents a scoping review of empirical German-language research concerning the professionalization of Physical Education Teachers (PETs) and Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE). This paper provides detailed insight into research activities in the field and gives recommendations for further research. It points out possible thematic, methodical and theoretical commonalities and divergences between German-speaking and international/Anglophone discourses, as well as shared challenges for future research. Methods: Using a scoping review methodology, the original framework was adjusted and extended to fit the needs of a transparent and substantiated inductive approach to thematic mapping. Based on a definition of research on PETE, we formulated inclusion and exclusion criteria and manually searched articles in six periodical German-language journals and conference proceedings. 160 empirical articles from the period 2010 to 2018 were selected. First, they were analyzed and charted in two stages. In a descriptive analysis following a deductive approach, the research field was mapped along with the categories chronological--numerical development, methods, samples, participants, authorship, and theoretical frameworks. In a thematic synthesis process following an inductive paradigm, a two-dimensional categorization system was developed along which the articles were charted. This system not only enables reporting about numerical findings but also provides information about the nature and interrelation of research domains and topics. Second, Anglophone literature reviews and handbook articles served as a point of reference to compare and discuss results from the German language to the Anglophone discourse. Special attention was given to thematic comparisons concerning similar and differing research trends and challenges. Results: The review shows research foci and identifiable gaps in accordance with present developments in educational policy as well as a significant increase in numerical output in the evaluated time period. While research on particular phases and moments of PETE gathered substantial insights, results especially regarding the understanding of long-term, biographical, professional developments of PETs are lacking in both research fields. To better understand long-term educational developments of PETs and how they are influenced remains the main challenge for future research. While German-language and Anglophone research cultures both come from their own historical, theoretical and methodological traditions, several attempts to open discourses concerning theoretical frameworks, methodological developments and research foci were revealed. One example is the development of qualitative methods to research implicit orientations and constructs, which originate from a shared qualitative history. This can potentially lead to a better understanding of educational processes and how these implicit constructs effect teaching. Discussion and conclusion: With finding and outlining commonalities and divergences between German-language and Anglophone research, this review provides a basis and status quo outlining possibilities for further research, cooperation and exchange. Moreover, similar trends and challenges were identified on a meta-level. Especially concerning theoretical backgrounds and methodical developments, the different research communities can further mutually improve each other and should enhance interaction and exchange. The results outline several possibilities for mutual enrichment.

This paper discusses contemporary societal roles of German in the Baltic states (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania). Speaker and learner statistics and a summary of sociolinguistic research (Linguistic Landscapes, language learning motivation, language policies, international roles of languages) suggest that German has by far fewer speakers and functions than the national languages, English, and Russian, and it is not a dominant language in the contemporary Baltics anymore. However, German is ahead of 'any other language' in terms of users and societal roles as a frequent language in education, of economic relations, as a historical lingua franca, and a language of traditional and new minorities. Highly diverse groups of users and language policy actors form a 'coalition of interested parties' which creates niches which guarantee German a frequent use. In the light of the abundance of its functions, the paper suggests the concept 'additional language of society' for a variety such as German in the Baltics - since there seems to be no adequate alternative labelling which would do justice to all societal roles. The paper argues that this concept may also be used for languages in similar societal situations and, not least, be useful in language marketing and the promotion of multilingualism.

The paper focuses on the communication of three bilingual couples, each speaking a different lingua franca (LF). Positioning theory offers a methodological framework to explain language choice in interactive positioning within personal contacts. A comparative view of the couples' storylines benefits from the differences between them. The analysis herein shows how the speakers are positioned in the subtle interplay of self-positioning and the positioning of the partner. The couples draw on their language resources and specific linguistic features which index language ideologies. Reasons for the choice and maintenance of a LF in the couple are informed by attitudinal factors which contribute to the discursive production of interpersonal positions. Findings outline multidimensional perspectives on LF couples by showing how different positions are created and how positioning is connected to the negotiation of a common language. This paper advances the debate on LF communication in intercultural relationships by demonstrating that positioning helps to investigate the ways in which diverse language resources intertwine to create different linguistic constellations and eventually improve our understanding of the performance in a third language.

Since its release, ChatGPT has raised concerns in many teaching contexts given its threat to reliably evaluating learners' knowledge and skills. Within task-based pedagogy, however, this technology opens new avenues for second language (L2) teaching when adopting the technology as a writing buddy. Our study explores how ChatGPT as a model impacts the revision process of advanced L2 writers of German. Twenty-two university students participated in a two-week classroom-based intervention, producing two summaries of popular-scientific texts in L2 German. After writing a first draft, they compared their summaries with texts produced by ChatGPT (3.5) and revised, where necessary, their own text. In this paper, we analyze all students' rubrics-based ratings of the ChatGPT models and present data of six focus students' screen-recorded revision processes that we coded for revision focus, source, and success. Results reveal students' growing awareness of characteristics of ChatGPT-output, such as linguistic accuracy and fluency, as well as its flaws in content provision. Revision data demonstrate that students skillfully made use of the models to improve their own texts. Our study provides evidence that using ChatGPT as models in writing and revision processes can stimulate higher-order thinking in the revision process of advanced L2 students.

The main goal of this paper is to suggest a combination of data analyses -- notably generalized additive models, time-series clustering methodology, visual methods for significance testing and qualitative analyses -- that relate to Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). To this end, we report on findings from a larger project conducted in a bilingual (pre)primary school in Switzerland, aiming to elucidate the complex ways that L2 English development emerges over time in 45 children who received German/English bilingual instruction over a period of eight years (age 5-12) in combination with emerging extracurricular exposure to English. The results reveal that increased extracurricular activities in English are particularly noticeable during periods of rapid development, but the effects seem temporally limited to the end stages of testing and strongly hinge on the cluster in question (i.e., learners with trajectorial similarities). We relate the findings to the "authenticity gap" between English inside and outside of school, as clusters who perceive a discrepancy between in- and out-of-school encounters with English also show rapid development that is characterized by increased English exposure during extracurricular activities. Methodological implications of adopting non-linear models, which can model complex dynamic relationships in order to better reconcile generalizability, variability, and individuality, are discussed.

This paper explores ways to integrate social justice issues pertaining to decolonization and anti-racism into the world language classroom at all levels of instruction. It describes tasks designed to introduce language learners briefly to German colonialism, raise awareness of colonial legacies in contemporary German-speaking societies, and familiarize students with current decolonization initiatives. By engaging students with the complex diversity of German-speaking societies, the tasks provide examples for diversifying and decolonizing the language curriculum while fostering collaboration, critical thinking, and transcultural sensitivity. The examples highlight approaches to anti-racist pedagogies and ways of incorporating social justice practices across all levels of instruction and applicable to all languages.

Recent publications emphasize the need to take greater account of differences in teaching quality between subjects. The empirical analysis of this topic requires a comparison of teaching quality in different subjects to distinguish generic aspects of teaching quality from subject-specific ones. In this paper, we compare teaching quality in mathematics and German lessons using observational data from primary schools in Switzerland (N[subscript Math] = 319; N[subscript German] = 237). Data were collected using an observation instrument reflecting the teaching dimensions of the MAIN-TEACH model, which was developed based on a synthesis of established observation frameworks. The dimensions of classroom management, motivational-emotional support, selection and implementation of content, cognitive activation, support for consolidation, assessment and feedback, and adaptation were tested for subject-related measurement invariance. With a two-fold measurement invariance approach, differences between the subjects were investigated at both a global and an indicator level. When applying alpha accumulation correction, no significant subject-related differences in factor loadings or intercepts were found. The factorial structure of our data was basically identical for the two subjects. The comparison of latent factor means revealed no mean differences between the subjects. We discuss the implications for both the MAIN-TEACH model and research into subject-related differences of teaching in general.

This paper gives an account of the history of foreign language values in Sweden from the seventeenth century to the present. The paper is informed by sociocultural standpoints on language and language learning according to which language is a dynamic tool that is appropriated by individuals to achieve particular purposes, and that dialogically creates and renews our social world(s). Since the sixteenth century, three languages (German, French and English) have been taught in Sweden as foreign languages during particular eras. In this paper, we explore how language value can be understood as a system that evolves over time as a result of triggers such as power, trade and personal benefits. The impact of these variables on Swedish society's efforts to invest in learning a particular language during specific eras is critically examined from the perspectives of nested systems.

Linguistics is conspicuously absent from language teaching in UK schools. A-level cultural topics cover a range of themes such as cyber-society, cultural heritage and multiculturalism, but the approach taken to these topics is not informed by linguistics. In previous work, we have argued that this is an unfortunate omission not only because linguistics is appealing to many language students and perceived by them to be useful, but also because the existing cultural topics could be significantly enriched by the inclusion of the critical/analytical study of language itself. In this paper, we provide concrete examples of how linguistics can be integrated into the existing A-level curriculum for Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) in England and Wales. Reporting on a project in which teachers trialled linguistics materials co-created by us (a group of academics) and experienced languages teachers, we present evidence that linguistics materials are perceived to be both highly novel and nonetheless compatible with the existing A-level curriculum. Data from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with participating teachers also show that: (i) these new materials can be taught with little or no prior experience of linguistics; and (ii) adding linguistics materials to the curriculum leads to significant impacts on teacher and pupil attitudes towards language(s). Despite some challenges, which we also discuss, the results highlight again the great potential of linguistics as a component of language teaching and the contribution that it can make to the enrichment of the discipline.

Due to the rising linguistic heterogeneity in schools, the inclusion of pupils with a first language other than the language of instruction is one of the major challenges of education systems all over the world. In this paper, attitudes of in-service teachers, pre-service teachers and parents towards the inclusion of pupils with a first language other than the language of instruction are examined. Additionally, as the paper focused on how the participants perceive the development of this pupils in different school settings (fully included, partly included, fully segregated). Data from 1501 participants were investigated. Descriptive results showed that pre-service teachers' attitudes towards the inclusive schooling of pupils with different language skills in composite classes were rather positive, while attitudes of in-service teachers and parents rather tend to be neutral. Regarding the results concerning the participants' attitudes towards the pupils' development in different school settings, all three sub-groups belief that pupils with German as first language would develop in a more positive way, compared to pupils without German as first language. Moreover, the migration background of pre-service teachers and parents had a positive influence on the participants' attitudes.

Linguistic minority spaces tend to have a long history of language-ideological struggles that are often fought on the terrain of education, which is further complexified in the light of more recent migration. The northernmost Italian province of South Tyrol is such a space, in which German-language preschools are increasingly attended by children not commonly positioned as "German-speaking," inevitably leading to challenges to the language education policies of these institutions. Drawing on ethnographic research, this paper investigates how teachers in early childhood education and care (ECEC) interpret and position themselves in relation to institutional and practiced language policies in this context. We show that teachers base their interpretations of language policies on a variety of sources, including written and ratified policy texts, the structural organisation of their institution, and their own beliefs and experience. We argue that contradictions embedded in institutional language policies require teachers to professionally navigate the demands placed on them in upholding the monolingualism of their institution, and in educating multilingual children. This paper sheds light on the complexities of (practiced) language policies in multilingual societies characterised by migration, providing insights into the challenges faced by ECEC teachers and highlighting the potential for ethnographic research to inform professional development initiatives.

Purpose: This paper analyses and classifies currently available English- and German-language measurement instruments for assessing economic literacy. It shows the content-related focuses and gaps of the extracted test instruments, the cognitive level of demand that characterises the instruments, the technical forms of implementation, and the extent to which the lifeworld contexts of test participants were considered. Method: The PSYNDEX, ERIC, German Education Index, and GESIS databases were systematically reviewed, and measurement instruments were examined based on four perspectives of analysis: economic subject dimension, learning psychology, assessment formats and technical design, and authenticity. Findings: Knowledge tests differ substantially from each other. Rather than representing all domains of the subject of economics equally, test instruments usually measure only one domain at a time. The focus of test instruments is on the retrieval of declarative knowledge. Measurement instruments were developed for adults and young people in equal parts. While some test instruments are related to the real world, authentic assessments are an exception.

By investigating the first thirty minutes of ten initial student group meetings (cf. Rampazzo & Aranha, 2019), this study explores the interactional resources that participants display during online talk-ininteraction. Multimodal Conversation Analysis is applied to the data consisting of "Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem 2" (GAT2) transcriptions of recorded Zoom video conferences. Virtual Exchange (VE), also referred to as Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL), is a method of intercultural online learning in which groups of learners collaborate with partners from another culture or geographical area in an authentic and immersive setting. Despite the collaborative and immersive nature of virtual exchanges, microanalytic studies regarding interaction in this field are still underrepresented (Dooly, 2017). This is also and particularly true for the concept of interactional competence (IC) (Kramsch, 1986) which has hardly been considered in VE research so far. IC is a competence model that comprises interlocutors' interactional resources such as turn-taking, repair, sequence-organization, multimodal resources and other. This paper depicts the interactional strategies that EFL students adopt in online video team meetings. Further, it argues that some L2 IC features, such as turn-taking and multilingual resources, come with particular dynamics and characteristics in a VE context and provides examples for these practices.

This paper focuses on vocabulary development in oral language productions of three elementary school-age sibling pairs growing up in a trilingual setting. This longitudinal study describes the development of the children's narrative competence over three years. The corpus analysed consists of retellings of animated films. The contribution deals with the lexical development in the three languages of the children, in particular the length of the productions, lexical diversity and lexical sophistication. Lexical diversity is measured by the Guiraud Index. It is assumed that the children's vocabulary becomes more diverse with increasing age. Lexical sophistication is examined by measuring the average frequency of words used by the participants. It is assumed that as children's vocabularies grow, they will include more and more 'rare' low-frequency words in their productions. Assuming that the school language is the dominant language, the question is whether lexical diversity and sophistication increase with age in all three of the children's languages, or whether this is only the case in the school language. The results show that lexical development varies from child to child. However, a certain trend can be observed, indicating that school vocabulary is becoming more sophisticated.

Glocalization is the local adaptation of global trends, and though it has been extensively studied in other fields, there has been a lower emphasis on it in pedagogy. Glocalization is especially relevant in education given that pedagogical approaches to language learning such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and English as a Lingua franca (ELF) have gained global popularity. The current paper examines beliefs, attitudes, and training needs of in-service CLIL teachers from two contexts: Taiwan and Andalusia (Spain). To this avail, a common online questionnaire was designed. 244 teachers participated in the study, 158 from Taiwan and 86 from Spain. Data have been analyzed quantitatively using the constant comparative model. Results indicate that CLIL teachers have considerable methodological and linguistic needs. Notably, while all teachers indicated a metalinguistic identity aligned with ELF, Andalusian teachers expressed a higher need for linguistic training than Taiwanese teachers and put language accuracy prior to content knowledge when assessing bilingual learning effectiveness. Conversely, Taiwanese bilingual teachers valued content training for themselves and assessment in content knowledge for learners. The present study concludes with identifying different training needs in each context thus supporting the notion of glocalizing CLIL teacher training.

This paper provides concrete suggestions for teaching two Holocaust testimonies, Irene Hauser's diary and Ruth Klüger's memoir "Still Alive." Hauser's and Klüger's texts effectively illustrate the differences between diaries and memoirs while recounting similar experiences. Such a comparative analysis, I argue, achieves two goals: First, by comparing two different types of autobiographical texts, students gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of the complexities, contradictions, and tensions inherent in autobiographical writing, ultimately encouraging students to become more accepting of ambiguity in their learning. Second, by focusing on Holocaust testimonies, students learn about persecution, injustice, and oppression, increasing their awareness of global issues, interculturalism, and social justice. The pedagogical approach and teaching suggestions outlined here are easily adaptable and can be applied to the teaching of autobiographical writing in other thematic contexts.

Given that societies across the globe are increasingly multicultural and multilingual, the notion of communicative competence grounded in constricting definitions of national cultures and languages reflects neither our instructional realities nor the sociolinguistic reality of the languages and cultures we teach. To foster students' development of second language (L2) competence grounded in an awareness of the symbolic construction of language and culture as well as "tolerance for ambiguity" (Kramsch, 2006), students must create with L2, rather than just reproduce what they have learned. After briefly outlining changing conceptions of language competency, this paper first describes how public uses of language and images through signs and graffiti make up a given place's linguistic landscape (LL), defines an evolving concept, and illustrates how it can be effectively used in L2 instruction. Then it highlights how a variety of LL-based activities help language learners become cognizant of their own sociolinguistic contexts and provides concrete examples from intermediate to advanced-level classes in two distinctly different German programs. The different approaches encourage students to combine LL-based activities with visual, literary, and film analysis to develop symbolic competencies that prepare them to negotiate unpredictable and diverse cultural norms.

The increasing use of English in higher education around the world has prompted a large amount of research into the causes, effects and perceptions of this phenomenon, particularly relating to the introduction of English-medium instruction. While most previous research has focussed on institutions that have effectively 'added' English to existing teaching programmes, this paper investigates attitudes towards and experience of the presence and use of English in a somewhat different context: the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano (unibz), which, since its creation in 1997, has offered teaching in English alongside the two local languages, German and Italian. This plurilingual approach, enshrined in the university statue, is explored through a thematic analysis of oral interviews with members of the unibz community (both staff and students). While some of the themes identified in the analysis mirror issues raised in studies of institutions elsewhere, a number of novel themes are also discussed and the overall picture to emerge is of a university whose language policy is relatively stable in terms of both acceptance and implementation, perhaps by virtue of the fact that a plurilingual approach has been adopted and supported since the university's creation and has always been a key part of its identity.

Private tutoring is part of the everyday life of hundreds of thousands of students all around the world, and its prevalence is growing. However, despite a proliferation of research on private tutoring, little is known about the role that school plays in shaping the phenomenon. This study investigates school-related factors that may affect private tutoring attendance in maths and German using two German nationwide samples of Grade 10 students (over 15,000 participants in total). These factors are: teacher support in the classroom, classroom management, teacher collaboration with the teacher body and teacher-family communication. We also verified the role of various individual factors, including student helplessness and the subjective task values. Two-level logistic regression analyses did not confirm the role of school-related factors. However, private tutoring attendance was affected by student helplessness, subjective task values, past school achievement, cognitive ability, gender, mother tongue and type of school attended, although the pattern of results differed between subjects. The results highlight the role of motivational factors behind the decision to take private tutoring, which has been rarely inquired into, and the remedial nature of private tutoring. They also show that school contribution to the decision remains elusive, at least for maths and German.

This paper investigates the implementation of a reading program designed for third grade elementary school classrooms in Austria. Using a mixed-methods approach, lesson types were identified, respective class compositions analyzed, and the effects on students' reading gains examined. The results show that the lesson types seem to reflect learner group needs as students in the different lesson types profited similarly from the reading program. This supports the hypothesis that reading is a highly individualized process and leads to the conclusion that the instructional approach of the reading program investigated supports teachers in conducting reading lessons tailored to their students' needs.

In a mixed-methods approach, this paper explores student views of plurilingual foreign-language (FL) teaching of English among primary-school students in grade 4. We investigate whether students who were raised in the majority language only and those who grew up speaking an additional minority language differ in their appreciation of plurilingual FL teaching and whether plurilingual FL teaching appeals to students with different profiles in linguistic, cognitive, attitudinal, or individual background factors. One-hundred and thirty-two students took part in a six-month teaching intervention, in which 20% of FL lesson time was devoted to plurilingual teaching. A qualitative analysis of student interviews shows mixed views of plurilingual FL teaching, with students speaking additional minority languages evaluating plurilingual teaching more favourably than majority-language-only students. In a quantitative analysis, we compare the groups of students who appreciated and those who did not appreciate plurilingual FL teaching in terms of their linguistic, cognitive or individual background factors. Students who appreciate plurilingual FL teaching display significantly more positive attitudes to the FL and a greater sense of academic achievement. Moreover, students appreciative of plurilingual FL teaching demonstrate significantly higher learning gains in productive vocabulary than non-appreciative students. In all, these findings indicate that attitudinal factors modulate the appreciation and the learning outcomes in plurilingual FL teaching.

Multilingualism does not enhance further language learning in learners if they are not supported by the school environment. Learning L3, L4 or Ln is attained best when language users take advantage and are aware of the existence of their overall linguistic knowledge. It is the teacher whose understanding and beliefs about multilingual pedagogies are central as they affect the manner in which they facilitate a language learner's multilingualism. This study investigates L3 foreign language teachers' beliefs about multilingualism and multilingual pedagogies in two secondary schools in Warsaw, Poland. The first part of the paper gives some background information regarding language learning in Polish schools with an emphasis on a multilingual perspective. In the second one, the collected data were analysed in a qualitative manner to reveal some recurring topics of language awareness, prior linguistic knowledge, cross-linguistic influence, the use of multilingual pedagogies and the auxiliary role of L2 English.

Recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) is a time-series analysis method that uses autocorrelation properties of typing data to detect regularities within the writing process. The following paper first gives a detailed introduction to RQA and its application to time series data. We then apply RQA to keystroke logging data of first and foreign language writing to illustrate how outcome measures of RQA can be understood as skill-driven constraints on keyboard typing performance. Forty native German students performed two prompted writing assignments, one in German and one in English, a standardized copy task, and a standardized English placement test. We assumed more fluent and skilled writing to reveal more structured typing time series patterns. Accordingly, we expected writing in a well-mastered first language to coincide with higher values in relevant RQA measures as compared to writing in a foreign language. Results of mixed model ANOVAs confirmed our hypothesis. We further observed that RQA measures tend to be higher, thus indicating more structured data, whenever parameters of pause, burst, and revision analyses indicate more fluent writing. Multiple regression analyses revealed that, in addition to typing skills, language proficiency significantly predicts outcomes of RQA. Thus, the present data emphasize RQA being a valuable resource for studying time series data that yields meaningful information about the effort a writer must exert during text production.

The scope of the paper is to analyse Namibian mainstream primary teachers' practices in the multilingual context they work in. As teachers have a central role in implementing language policies, their practices either support or impede learning as well as learners' multilingual identities. Multilingual practices entailing rich scaffolding and translanguaging strategies are supposed to be beneficial for content and language learning and the learners' identity development. The methodological approach adopted in this study is ethnographic, and the theoretical framework is linguistically responsive teaching and multilingual education. The data consist of teacher interviews and focus group discussions, a questionnaire and classroom observations. The analysis method is qualitative content analysis. The data were collected in two Namibian government primary schools in the beginning of the 2020 school year. The analysis shows that translanguaging strategies such as peer translation or explaining concepts in home languages are used, but rarely as pre-planned pedagogical strategies. Scaffolding is provided mostly through visual aids. It may be concluded that the translanguaging strategies already in use should be encouraged further, and multilingual pedagogies should be included in both pre-service and in-service teacher education.

In this paper, we present a study, which models and measures the competencies of higher education students in business and economics--within and across countries. To measure student competencies in a valid and reliable way, the Test of Understanding in College Economics was used, which assesses microeconomic and macroeconomic competencies. The test was translated into several languages and adapted for different university contexts. In the presented study, the test contents were also compared with regard to the educational standards and the university curricula in Russia and Germany. Our findings from the cross-national analysis suggest one strong general factor of economic competence, which encompasses micro- and macroeconomic dimensions. This points to a stronger interconnection between learning and understanding economic contents than previous research suggests and indicates far-reaching curricular and instructional consequences for higher education economics as well as needs for further research, which are discussed in this paper.

At conceptual and linguistic levels of cognition, events are said to be represented in terms of abstract categories, for example, the sentence "Jackie cut the bagel with a knife" encodes the categories Agent (i.e., "Jackie") and Patient (i.e., "the bagel"). In this paper, we ask whether entities such as "the knife" are also represented in terms of such a category (often labeled "Instrument") and, if so, whether this category has a prototype structure. We hypothesized the Proto-instrument is a "tool": a physical object manipulated by an intentional agent to affect a change in another individual or object. To test this, we asked speakers of English, Dutch, and German to complete an event description task and a sentence acceptability judgment task in which events were viewed with more or less prototypical instruments. We found broad similarities in how English, Dutch, and German partition the semantic space of instrumental events, suggesting there is a shared concept of the Instrument category. However, there was no evidence to support the specific hypothesis that tools are the core of the Instrument category--instead, our results suggest the most prototypical Instrument is the direct extension of an intentional agent. This paper supports theoretical frameworks where thematic roles are analyzed in terms of prototypes and suggests new avenues of research on how instrumental category structure differs across linguistic and conceptual domains.

Purpose: Attempts to cultivate a multilingual mindset in education in South Tyrol find an obstacle in educational norms, structures and policies that divide students into linguistically distinct schools based on their self-identified main language. Education in the region is administered through three separate educational authorities -- German-speaking, Italian-speaking, Ladin-speaking -- and teachers are prepared for service in one of these based on their own declared linguistic identification. Plural identities and translingual interaction do not flourish in this context where language separation is the norm. This paper begins with an overview of the educational policy of language separation in South Tyrol and its impact on the language achievement of its students. It then addresses how the Free University of Bolzano has responded to the need for improved language competences through teacher training for multilingual schools in the Province of Bolzano. Design: The paper presents the preliminary results of a small-scale study with in-service preschool teachers through an action research cycle in which classroom observations and a language input observation scheme are used to quantitively measure the quality of teachers' language input in second-language instruction in German and English, and provide formative feedback for improvement in teaching practice. Findings and Value: The expected outcomes of the study are threefold: (1) improving input and corrective feedback strategies of language teachers; (2) raising language awareness among teachers participating in peer observation; (3) empowering the emergence of language rich episodes through effective planning of interactive lessons in second/foreign language teaching. The study contributes to an understanding of what makes teachers' corrective feedback strategies in preschool settings effective in rendering input comprehensible for young learners, thus assisting language appropriation processes.

This paper examines current practices that embrace the union between foreign language (L2) teaching and translation in higher education (HE). The rejection of monolingualism and prescriptive principles in favour of bi-, multi-, or plurilingualism; a diversified interdisciplinarity; new sociocultural realities characterised by greater international mobility; different needs and challenges in foreign language teaching; and an openness of translation studies, are only some of the reasons why the link between both areas remains pertinent. However, while the advocacy of integrating the use of translation in language teaching seems to be gaining steady ground in the last decade, specific ways of introducing translation into the L2 curriculum are not always clear. This paper discusses issues related to the design and implementation of a module that would tackle L2 learning while serving as an exploratory course on translation within a degree in languages in HE. The discussion aims to add to the debate on practical issues by explaining the rationale of the module, as well as any difficulties prior to designing the module, and those encountered in the implementation phase.

This article presents data from a videographic study that aims to explore the possibilities and limits of multilingual teaching approaches currently integrated in the curriculum and foreign language textbooks in German-speaking Switzerland. The focus of this paper is on sequences in which primary school children aged 11-12 deal with typical multilingual activities that refer to home languages. Such activities usually aim to make home languages visible and valued. The corpus of this study consists of 32 videos of 90 min each in which pupils deal with multilingual activities in small groups. The videos were transcribed and analysed using qualitative content analysis. This paper discusses possible challenges and opportunities for including home languages in the classroom. Among the opportunities observed are students being admired for their linguistic knowledge in their home languages or being glad to be referred to as experts for their home languages. At the same time, situations of 'valorisation against students will' were observed, i.e. moments in which pupils are uneasy with being referred to as experts of their respective home languages. Furthermore, instances of a superficial inclusion of students' home languages will be discussed.

In this paper, we discuss the teaching effects of augmented reality (AR) technology in German instruction. We conducted one prestudy and three formal studies on German learners in China's mainland and Taiwan region. In the formal studies, a total of 120 students participated in the survey, allowing us to compare the differences in interest in learning between AR picture books and traditional picture books. A total of 114 students took part in the survey, which enabled us to compare the contribution of AR picture books to teaching when students' satisfaction and German proficiency were different. To improve satisfaction, 514 students participated in the survey regarding the influence of the interactive narrative design effect and peer learning on satisfaction with using AR picture books. The results suggest that when learning German with AR picture books, satisfaction is the key construct that determines students' learning states.

Students' self-efficacy is a crucial factor in learning foreign/second language. Although a growing body of literature has drawn attention to the self-efficacy in various fields, very few studies have addressed this issue in the field of foreign language and especially German learning. The purpose of this paper was to develop a reliable and valid tool for measuring self-efficacy beliefs of German learners. A total of 205 students (154 Female and 51 Male) studying in the German language education department participated in the study. After the data collection, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were performed to determine the validity and reliability of the scale. The Cronbach Alpha value of the developed scale was found to be 0.928, which is quite high. The explained variance value of the factors was found to be 62.943, which indicates a high validity. As a result of the analysis, a 23-item and 3- dimensional scale was developed. In conclusion, the developed scale is a valid and reliable tool for measuring language learning performance, linguistic skills, and learning confidence in the language learning process in the context of self-efficacy belief.

The construct of psychological flow bridges several areas of second language learning interest, including motivation, investment, self-efficacy, and autonomy. Flow, characterized by intense focus on an enjoyable activity that is at once challenging and accessible, creates conditions that have been linked to learning. Research interest in flow has grown, but the L2 research remains scarce and exploratory. This paper, which uses a two-study format, proposes and tests a new category coding scheme designed to explain which activities generate language-class flow. In Study A, third- and fourth-semester learners of Spanish, French, Italian, and German (N = 82) described their most flow-generating language-class experiences on an online questionnaire. In Study B, first- through fourth-semester students of Spanish (N = 588) did the same. The responses were coded to one category in each of four contrasting category pairs. Parallel analyses were conducted for each study, and within each study counts and chi-square tests were performed separately on each category pair. The results of both studies showed statistically significant contrasts within all four category pairs, and revealed that student-centered, open-ended, authentic, and non-competitive activities were more likely to generate flow than their opposites (i.e., teacher-centered, closed-ended, inauthentic, and competitive activities). Pedagogical implications and directions for future research are discussed based on these results.

The present study, conducted with the phenomenology method, a qualitative research design, aimed to determine the awareness of pre-service Turkish language teachers about the catchphrases printed on t-shirts that individuals notice or do not notice in daily life or do not pay much attention even if when they notice them. The study sample included 39 volunteering pre-service teachers (19 males and 20 females), attending the department of Turkish language education during the 2018-2019 academic year. The sample was determined with the convenience sampling method. An interview form that included open-ended questions and a questionnaire that aimed to determine participant demographics were applied to the sample. Furthermore, t-shirt texts in several foreign languages were determined by the author and the pre-service teachers were asked whether they knew the Turkish translations of these texts and whether they preferred foreign language or Turkish texts. Descriptive analysis was conducted on the responses of the pre-service teachers. Since these responses were considered important, direct quotes were included in this paper. The study findings demonstrated that 69% of the pre-service Turkish language teachers did not care about the texts on the t-shirts they purchased and prioritized the model of the t-shirts. Since this was a non-negligible rate, it was suggested that the study would contribute to the literature and raise awareness.

Swiss Vocational Education and Training (VET) is based on national legislation which was introduced in the 1930s and renewed in the 1960s (as well as in the 1970s and in 2002). At first, the goal of the national VET legislation was to further Vocational Education and Training in order to support small and medium enterprises; however, later, it also included industry and services and has more recently grown to support the learners themselves. The 1963 national legislation and the following implementation acts in the cantons were decisive in shaping the Swiss VET system from a historical and comparative perspective. We argue that still today we do not have a unified, national system of education, but rather e cantonal modes of education and also of VET. However, the cantonal actors--with a specific focus on Ticino, Geneva, and Zurich--argue with similar justifications, when it comes to the reform of VET. Nevertheless, within this national legal framework, the cantons adopt rather different solutions. The result is that different (language specific) regional pathways of VET were established, based on various education and training regimes. In this research paper, we aim to concentrate on the years from 1950 to 1970, a period that turns out to be particularly significant for the development of Swiss VET. We focus our research on the introduction of the Vocational Training Act in 1963 and look in detail at the extent to which the cantons developed their corresponding implementation acts from the perspectives of different motives and logics.

Connections between linguistic heterogeneity, educational choices and (family) biographies are complex and ever shifting. With this paper, my aim is to explore the question how social spaces are constructed by multilingual families in migration societies and how they situate social spaces 'in between', thereby challenging both binary and national logics and creating "third spaces." Especially in view of national educational institutions, family decisions on language transmission and use are reflected upon and at times re-evaluated. Analysis of family interviews with German migrants in Norway shows how both continuity and change are relevant for the parents as they try to produce an uninterrupted family biography but at the same time need to be open to adaptations to new situations. Expectations, language ideologies and perspectives that transcend one's own family spaces gain relevance while (national) institutions may call for changes in language regimes and practices.

Families that live in a new environment after having fled or migrated go through transformation processes that are connected to various challenges and possibilities. The focus of this paper is on negotiations of language policies in family biographies and family language practices, comparing cases of migrant families who arrived to Switzerland in different legal contexts of migration. The article addresses how these transnational families negotiate the meaning of (family) languages against the background of hegemonic language and migration policies. Questions of how these policies are experienced and dealt with and in what ways they do enable or disable possibilities for action are addressed using a qualitative analysis of narrative family interviews and participant observations in transnational families that now live in German-speaking Switzerland. On the basis of the analyses of interview transcriptions and field notes, I show how families deal with experiences of social and educational inequalities in the context of transnational pathways of education and how these are negotiated in the families. Language learning appears not only as an (un)available possibility, but it also requires one to return to the status of a student. At the same time, it is accompanied by a deep struggle for identity and belonging.

Within discourses on education and transnationalism, much importance has been given to language, both for the educational success of migrants and their transition into the labor market. Among the many perspectives on multilingualism, there is a growing body of research on language brokering. In contrast to professional interpreting, this is often associated with interpreting without formal qualifications or payment in mostly informal settings. However, language brokering is embedded in complex social structures, and students who interpret often act within complex power relations. In our article, we address experiences with education-related language brokering. While focusing on the perspectives of the students, we will address the roles they take during language brokering activities between different actors and the power relations they experience. Our data were collected as part of an ethnographic research project which aimed to explore the experiences of refugee students following their arrival in Austria and during the adjustment period in their new sociolinguistic and educational context. Empirically, the article is based on a data set of small stories and reflections about language brokering. The analysis was carried out through contrastive comparisons between different cases. The paper will conclude with suggestions on the introduction of critical language brokering practices and policies in educational institutions.

The Maybachufer Market is an urban street market in Berlin-Neukölln that constitutes a highly diverse urban context by bringing together people of different social, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Through linguistic ethnography, this paper explores the negotiation of various resources in everyday communicative practices and activities of this urban space. The market setting with its multiethnic and multilingual community constitutes a spatial repertoire with a rich pool of resources. Although German, Turkish, and English are prominent as local and international lingua francas, various other languages and resources are used in the market activities involving different types and modes of interaction. The study shows that the respective communicative practices, which seem random at first glance, in fact follow specific interactional patterns with respect to communicative goals and interactional roles, including different social relations and identity constructions. While exploring everyday activities and the linguistic behaviours at a highly diverse urban market, the study contributes to our understanding of spatial repertoires, metrolingual and convivial practices, and communicative patterns in multilingual and multiethnic interactions in highly diverse urban spaces.

Due to globalisation and migration, multilingualism has become both a reality and an aim of education systems across Europe, affecting how language education is shaped. To improve the ways in which schools cater for language education in diverse settings, research is required on the potentials of multilingualism in order to design curricula that foster skills in different languages. This paper aims at identifying and explaining research priorities in the field of multilingualism and language education in a cross-national perspective. It draws on data from a survey with 298 expert participants in five European countries (Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain) who ranked pre-identified research topics in relation to their perceived urgency. Results show that experts identified 'effectiveness of multilingual support in regular lessons', 'features of multilingual didactics' and 'effectiveness of literacy support in home languages on the development of academic language skills in the majority language' as having the highest research priority overall. However, these results vary across national settings investigated. While the German, Dutch and Portuguese respondents attributed urgency to research on academic language skills, other issues were rated higher in the Spanish and Italian research contexts. The advantages and limitations of conducting cross-national research are also addressed.

Background: Dysphagia is prevalent in subjects with Parkinson's disease (PD). Swallowing intervention to improve or maintain swallowing function is of major importance as dysphagia may considerably impact physical and psycho-social health. Aims: A mixed methods systematic review was conducted to summarize and appraise literature reporting (1) effects of behavioural interventions for swallowing in individuals with PD; and (2) participants' perspectives of swallowing interventions. Methods & Procedures: Electronic databases were searched systematically in July 2020 for articles published between 2014 and 2020. In addition, studies published between 2000 and 2014 were identified non-systematically through previous reviews. Peer-reviewed quantitative and qualitative research in English or German documenting behavioural interventions for swallowing in individuals with a diagnosis of PD was eligible for inclusion. Participants at all disease stages were included. Behavioural interventions included rehabilitative and compensatory strategies. Studies reporting swallowing outcomes with and without a comparative group were included. For each study, the National Health and Medical Research Council level of evidence was defined. Included studies were critically appraised using the Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Papers from a Variety of Fields. An integrated synthesis was performed after separate analysis of effect data and data reflecting participants' experiences. This review was conducted based on published JBI methodology and the guideline from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis system was followed. Main Contribution: A total of 33 studies published in English met the inclusion criteria. Thirty-one studies reported quantitative data, one was qualitative and one was mixed methods. Intervention effects on swallowing function, swallowing safety and swallowing-related quality of life were reported for various treatment approaches. Three studies explored how participants perceived the intervention. Overriding themes including subjects' views regarding treatment schedules and levels of effort or comfort associated with the intervention were identified across these studies. Combining evidence of intervention effects and subjects' experiences was possible for one rehabilitative and one compensatory intervention. Conclusions & Implications: Beneficial effects of swallowing interventions have been reported; however, most experiments were case studies of variable methodological quality. Randomized-controlled trials with robust methodology to explore treatment effects in larger samples is needed to guide clinical practice. Research reporting subjects' views is scarce. More studies exploring how individuals perceive behavioural interventions for swallowing are necessary to inform clinical decision-making.

The initial response to COVID-19 exposed widespread racism and Sinophobia across the world, which contributed to a rethinking of equality and diversity in Higher Education (HE) and beyond. Within Modern Languages, much attention has been placed on decolonising the curriculum. The death of George Floyd in 2020 further contributed to an increased awareness of the need to rethink racism and challenge current practice within the curriculum. This paper re-examines the findings of a doctoral study exploring students' development of Intercultural Competence (IC) and criticality in Modern Languages with the aim of revisiting ways in which students' intercultural development can be defined and fostered in Higher Education.