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In the oil and gas industry, the demand for alternative materials is rising due to corrosion and the desire to reduce costs through weight reduction. Polymer composites are gaining attention for their corrosion resistance, favourable strength-to-weight ratio, and cost-effectiveness. The biopolymer composite is projected to have an output worth $4.95 billion between 2021 and 2025 and growth at a 5.38% compound annual growth rate. This review focuses on exploring the potential of natural fibres as reinforcement for biofibre polymer composite pipes in oil and gas, highlighting their ecofriendliness, biodegradability, and cost-efficiency. The paper assesses biopolymer composite pipes' development, challenges, and applications, particularly those using continuous basalt and banana fibres. While basalt fibre has found field applications, banana fibre-reinforced polymer composites are still in the early research stages. Despite significant oil and gas industry players already endorsing polymer composites, further research is needed for biopolymer composites to address challenges like compatibility, environmental impact, standardisation, long-term durability, production processes, and regulatory acceptance. Advancing biocomposite research and exploring new research opportunities are essential for engineering advancements and advanced materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing environmental concerns have increased the scientific interest in the utilization of natural fibers for the development of epoxy biocomposite materials. The incorporation of one or more fibers in the production of hybrid epoxy polymer composites has been a subject of discussion. It is interesting to acknowledge that natural/synthetic fiber hybridized epoxy composites have superior properties over natural/natural fiber hybridized epoxy composites. Significant efforts have been devoted to the improvement of natural fiber surface modifications to promote bonding with the epoxy matrix. However, to achieve sufficient surface modification without destroying the natural fibers, optimization of treatment parameters such as the concentration of the treatment solution and treatment time is highly necessary. Synthetic and treated natural fiber hybridization in an epoxy matrix is expected to produce biocomposites with appreciable biodegradability and superior mechanical properties by manipulating the fiber/matrix interfacial bonding. This paper presents a review of studies on the processing of epoxy natural fiber composites, mechanical properties, physical properties such as density and water absorption, thermal properties, biodegradability study, nondestructive examination, morphological characterizations, and applications of epoxy-based natural fiber biocomposites. Other aspects, including a review of variables that enhance the mechanical and functional performance of epoxy/natural fibers composites while also increasing the biodegradability of the composite material for environmental sustainability, were presented. The future research focus was elucidated. It is hoped that this review will stimulate and refocus research efforts toward advancing the manufacture of epoxy/natural fiber composites to meet the growing demand for biocomposite materials in the global world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ongoing decades, material researchers and scientists are giving more consideration towards the improvement of biobased polymer composites as various employments of items arranged by natural fibres and petrochemical polymers prompt natural awkwardness. The goal of this review paper is to provide an intensive review and applications of the foremost appropriate commonly used biodegradable polymer composites. It is imperative to build up the completely/incompletely biodegradable polymer composites without bargaining the mechanical, physical, and thermal properties which are required for the end-use applications. This reality roused to create biocomposite with better execution alongside the least natural effect. The utilization of natural fibre-reinforced polymer composites is concerned with the mechanical properties that are highly dependent on the morphology, hydrophilic tendency, aspect ratio, and dimensional stability of the natural fibre. With this in-depth consideration of eco-friendly biocomposites, structural application materials in the infrastructure, automotive industry, and consumer applications of the following decade are attainable within the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of lightweight natural fiber functional composites in the manufacturing of ballistic protective materials has garnered significant attention in recent years. This is due to their superior mechanical properties, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. Ballistic panels are constructed using multiple layers of diverse composites, which collectively exhibit excellent mechanical properties. These properties enable them to withstand strong impacts enhancing their capability for different applications in defense, military, and aerospace components. The primary focus of this review is to examine the different influential factors that govern the development of novel polymeric materials for current ballistic applications. It also explores various research approaches, such as experimental, analytical, numerical modeling, and empirical techniques. The review highlights both internal factors, such as material composition, and external factors, such as projectile parameters (e.g., nose angles, projectile shape, and projectile size). These factors are crucial for optimizing the robust ballistic performance of natural fiber-based polymer composites. In addition, various valuable insights to develop more effective and sustainable ballistic protective materials for applications in bulletproof helmets, defense, aerospace, and military sectors have also been elaborated. Consequently, the article presents a comprehensive review of the impact of utilizing various natural fibers as alternative materials to Kevlar for armor structures, offering a state-of-the-art perspective and challenges faced in full-scale implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Another study on arrowroot ( I Maranta arundinacea i )-fibre-reinforced arrowroot starch biopolymer composites conducted by Tarique et al. [[19]] shows that the mechanical properties were enhanced up to 15.22 MPa with the optimum filler content was 10%. Other studies regarding kenaf fibre and phenol-formaldehyde (KF/PF) composites reported that kenaf fibre loading up to 43% showed the best tensile strength for the composites [[16]]. I "Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Mechanical Properties and Applications" i is a newly open Special Issue of I Polymers i , which aims to publish original and review papers on new scientific and applied research and make boundless contributions to the finding and understanding of the reinforcing effects of various synthetic and natural fibres on the performance of biopolymer composites. [Extracted from the article]

Rotational moulding is a unique low-shear process used to manufacture hollow parts. The process is an excellent process method for batch processing, minimal waste and stress-free parts. However, the process has drawbacks such as long cycle times, gas dependency and a limited palette of materials relative to other process methods. This review aimed to shed light on the current state-of-the-art research contributing towards sustainability in rotational moulding. The scope of this review broadly assessed all areas of the process such as material development, process adaptations and development, modelling, simulation and contributions towards applications carving a more sustainable society. The PRISMA literature review method was adopted, finding that the majority of publications focus on material development, specifically on the use of waste, fillers, fibres and composites as a way to improve sustainability. Significant focus on biocomposites and natural fibres highlighted the strong research interest, while recyclate studies appeared to be less explored to date. Other research paths are process modification, modelling and simulation, motivated to increase energy efficiency, reduction in scrap and attempts to reduce cycle time with models. An emerging research interest in rotational moulding is the contribution towards the hydrogen economy, particularly type IV hydrogen vessels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber-based composites demonstrate excellent and comparable static and dynamic mechanical properties to conventional materials, such as steel and aluminum. They also extend their applications to aeronautical, sports equipment, and marine fields. This experimental study aims to find the effect of untreated and treated Abaca-reinforced epoxy composites on the viscoelastic behavior and the optimum combinations of fiber and resin to produce better bonding efficiency. The different specimens used for this study were pure epoxy, untreated, and chemically treated composite specimens. The four weight percentages of Abaca fibers are 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% used to prepare composite specimens. Similarly, four different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentrations, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt. %/vol. %, have been used for the chemical treatment of fibers. The storage modulus of Abaca-reinforced epoxy composite specimen has been investigated with respect to temperature and fiber content. The result shows that the 30% weight fraction of fibers with chemically (8 wt. %/vol. %) treated fiber-reinforced epoxy specimen produces 41.67% higher storage modulus than the 10% weight fraction of fibers content of composite specimens. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) broad transmittance has been used to distinguish the raw and chemically treated fibers. FTIR results reveal the removal of functional groups after NaOH treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work has demonstrated a silane incorporated dual dynamic network vitrimer resin from biobased feedstocks and its application in recyclable hemp fiber composite. [Display omitted] • A dual dynamic network vitrimer resin was developed from biobased feedstocks. • Direct incorporation of amino silane improved fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion. • The addition of amino silane also enhanced resin and composite performance. • Hemp fiber reinforced vitrimer composites were recycled using mild aminolysis. • The decomposed matrix resin was reused as a polyol for PU adhesives. Natural fiber composites are inexpensive and renewable alternatives to traditional fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs). However, existing natural fiber composites primarily rely on petrochemical based thermosetting matrices, which are difficult to recycle due to their stable crosslinked network structures. To address this challenge, it is desirable to develop natural fiber composites with inherently recyclable biobased matrices. In this study, we developed a dual dynamic network vitrimer matrix from hempseed oil and limonene derivatives and demonstrated its application in hemp fiber reinforced composites. To improve the weak interface between hemp fiber and the polymer matrix, a common challenge in the realm of natural fiber composites, we directly incorporated amino silane into the vitrimer matrix. The amino silane participated in the polymer network, increasing the crosslink density and toughening the matrix, as evidenced by the significant improvement of impact strength from 3.5 kJ/m2 to 10.3 kJ/m2. Moreover, the incorporation of amino silane resulted in a lower water absorption by 11 % in a 7-day soaking for the composites, demonstrating improved fiber/matrix interfacial interaction. Furthermore, our biobased vitrimer matrix exhibits both imine and hydroxy-ester dynamic bonds, which enable the recycling of the biocomposite through a mild and cost-effective aminolysis process (100 °C, 3 h, ambient pressure). The decomposed polymer matrix was successfully reused as a polyol for polyurethane adhesives, and the surface morphology of recovered hemp fibers was analyzed and compared with that of the original fibers. These findings will help broaden the use of vitrimers for practical natural fiber composite applications, raise awareness of the problem of recycling natural fiber composite waste, and shed light on the interfacial challenge of natural fiber reinforced vitrimer composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various environmental concerns motivate scientists and researchers to look out for unique new materials in science and technology. In order to address the demand for polymeric materials with partial biodegradability, the usage of lignocellulosic fibre in the polymer matrix has risen. Lignocellulosic fibres are a cheap, easily renewable resource that is readily available in all regions. Cellulosic plant fibres also have a plethora of possibilities for use in polymer reinforcement because of their properties. Many researchers put their effort into developing a natural polymer with better mechanical properties and thermal stability using nanotechnology and the use of natural polymers to make its composites with lignocellulosic fibres. This study provides a review of the biodegradable composite market, processing methods, matrix-reinforcement phases, morphology, and characteristic improvements. In addition, it provides a concise summary of the findings of significant research on natural fibre polymer composites (NFRCs) that have been published. Indeed, a noticeably brief discussion is provided on the significant issues faced during composite extraction as well as the challenges encountered during the machining. Recent developments in the study of lignocellulosic fibre composites or NFRCs have demonstrated their enormous potential as structural elements in vehicles, aerospace structures, buildings, ballistics, soundproofing, and other structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber-reinforced composites perform poorly when exposed to moisture. Biocarbon has been proven to improve the water-absorbing behavior of natural fiber composites. However, the interaction effect of the design parameters on the biocarbon-filled hemp fiber-reinforced bio-epoxy composites has not been studied. In this study, the effects of the design parameters (pyrolysis temperature, biocarbon particle size, and filler loading) on the water absorptivity and water diffusivity of hemp-reinforced biopolymer composites have been investigated. Biocarbon from the pyrolysis of hemp and switchgrass was produced at 450, 550, and 650 °C. Composite samples with 10 wt.%, 15 wt.%, and 20 wt.% of biocarbon fillers of sizes below 50, 75, and 100 microns were used. The hemp fiber in polymer composites showed a significant influence in its water uptake behavior with the value of water absorptivity 2.41 × 10−6 g/m2.s1/2. The incorporation of biocarbon fillers in the hemp biopolymer composites reduces the average water absorptivity by 44.17% and diffusivity by 42.02%. At the optimized conditions, the value of water absorptivity with hemp biocarbon and switchgrass biocarbon fillers was found to be 0.72 × 10−6 g/m2.s1/2 and 0.73 × 10−6 g/m2.s1/2, respectively. The biocarbon at 650 °C showed the least composite thickness swelling due to its higher porosity and lower surface area. Biocarbon-filled hemp composites showed higher flexural strength and energy at the break due to the enhanced mechanical interlocking between the filler particles and the matrix materials. Smaller filler particle size lowered the composite's water diffusivity, whereas the larger particle size of the biocarbon fillers in composites minimizes the water absorption. Additionally, higher filler loading results in weaker composite tensile energy at the break due to the filler agglomeration, reduced polymer-filler interactions, reduced polymer chain mobility, and inadequate dispersion of the filler. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural fibre containing cellulose as its main component that can be used as an alternative material to improve the strength of polymer composites. Paper focused on the determination of the best volume fraction of sugarcane fibre-reinforced polymer composites. Three variants of alkalization time were carried out. The highest average value of the tensile test results was obtained at an alkalization time of 1.5 h with a tensile strength of 41 N mm−2 and elongation correspond to 11.806% where the highest bending test results were obtained at an alkalizing time of 0.5 h with a bending strength of 24.89 N mm−2. The results of mechanical interlocking have been observed on macrostructure photo and at 1.5 h of alkalization are better than 0.5 h and 1 h of alkalizing time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber (NF) is one of the many resources that nature has provided. NFs decompose quickly and are biodegradable, renewable, and cost-effective. It may be scavenged from a variety of plant and animal sources. They are employed as reinforcing materials in polymers for NF composite development. Because of its environmental friendliness and long-term survivability, NF is growing in appeal among academics and researchers for usage in polymer composites. This study aims to offer a thorough evaluation of the most suitable and widely utilized natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFPCs), along with their manufacture, processing, and applications. It also defines several external treatments of NF and their influence on the characteristics of NFPCs. The characteristics of NFPCs are affected by fiber supply, fiber type, and fiber structure. Numerous physical and chemical treatments were tested to see how they affected the thermal and strength properties of natural fiber-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites. Several polymer composite fabrication techniques were also studied. NFPCs have several disadvantages, notably low fire protection, poor strength properties, and greater moisture absorption, which have prevented their application. It is shown how NFPCs are employed in a variety of industries, particularly automotive and research industries. The review discovered that intentionally changing the regular fiber enhanced the thermochemical and physico-mechanical properties of the NFPCs by means of improving the grip between the fiber surface and the polymer framework. This study aims to provide important and fundamental facts on NF and their composites, which will aid in new investigations, the creation of a creative framework for polymer composite types, and the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Natural Fibers is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the past few years, a new passion for the growth of biodegradable polymers based on elements derived from natural sources has been getting much attention. Natural fiber-based polymer matrix composites offer weight loss, reduction in cost and carbon dioxide emission, and recyclability. In addition, natural fiber composites have a minimal impact on the environment in regards to global warming, health, and pollution. Polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the best natural resource polymers available among biodegradable polymers. Natural fiber–reinforced PLA polymer composites have been extensively researched by polymer researchers to compete with conventional polymers. The type of fiber used plays a massive part in fiber and matrix bonds and, thereby, influences the composite's mechanical properties and thermal properties. Among the various natural fibers, low density, high strength bamboo fibers (BF) have attracted attention. PLA and bamboo fiber composites play a vital character in an extensive range of structural and non-structural applications. This review briefly discussed on currently developed PLA-based natural bamboo fiber–reinforced polymer composites concentrating on the property affiliation of fibers. PLA polymer–reinforced natural bamboo fiber used to establish composite materials, various composite fabrication methods, various pretreatment methods on fibers, their effect on mechanical properties, as well as thermal properties and applications on different fields of such composites are discussed in this study. This review also presents a summary of the issues in the fabrication of natural fiber composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, tensile properties of abaca-reinforced HDPE and BioPE composites have been researched. The strength of the interface between the matrix and the reinforcement of a composite material noticeably impacts its mechanical properties. Thus, the strength of the interface between the reinforcements and the matrices has been studied using micromechanics models. Natural fibers are hydrophilic and the matrices are hydrophobic, resulting in weak interfaces. In the study, a coupling agent based on polyethylene functionalised with maleic acid was used, to increase the strength of the interface. The results show that 8 wt% coupling agent contents noticeably increased the tensile strength of the composites and the interface. Tensile properties obtained for HDPE and BioPE-based coupled composites were statistically similar or better for BioPE-based materials. The use of bio-based matrices increases the possibility of decreasing the environmental impact of the materials, obtaining fully bio-based composites. The article shows the ability of fully bio-based composites to replace others using oil-based matrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biocomposites were prepared from poly(lactic acid) and two natural reinforcements, a native starch and sugarcane bagasse fibers. The strength of interfacial adhesion was estimated by model calculations, and local deformation processes were followed by acoustic emission testing. The results showed that the two additives influence properties differently. The strength of interfacial adhesion and thus the extent of reinforcement are similar because of similarities in chemical structure, the large number of OH groups in both reinforcements. Relatively strong interfacial adhesion develops between the components, which renders coupling inefficient. Dissimilar particle characteristics influence local deformation processes considerably. The smaller particle size of starch results in larger debonding stress and thus larger composite strength. The fracture of the bagasse fibers leads to larger energy consumption and to increased impact resistance. Although the environmental benefit of the prepared biocomposites is similar, the overall performance of the bagasse fiber reinforced PLA composites is better than that offered by the PLA/starch composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) are being widely used in aerospace, marine, automotive and healthcare applications due to their sustainability, low cost and ecofriendly nature. The NFRPCs manufactured through conventional and computer-controlled intelligent manufacturing techniques may contain internal and external defects. Traditionally, the microstructure of NFRPCs at different stages of manufacturing was obtained using destructive techniques which have stringent sample size restrictions and may cause a decrease in residual properties of composites due to destructive scanning. However, these complications can be overcome by using non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques. This review highlights the impact of NDE and AI on the improvement of emerging manufacturing systems. We have discussed the classification of biocomposites, their manufacturing techniques, recyclability and strategies to improve mechanical properties. Further, the use of different types of contact and non-contact NDE techniques in understanding the microstructural variations during manufacturing, machining and the parameters that affect the mechanical performance of NFRPCs are discussed. The use of NDE images in developing the geometrical and computational models of NFRPCs is presented. We have highlighted the importance of AI technology in enhancing the quality of NDE images, improving the microstructural information before post-processing the data, and minimizing the analysis time and identifying the defects and damages in NFRPCs. In the end, we presented the application of NDE techniques and AI technology in efficient generation of digital material twins of NFRPCs, which will be useful to design next-generation biocomposites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

33810584 7 Nurazzi N.M., Harussani M.M., Aisyah H.A., Ilyas R.A., Norrrahim M.N.F., Khalina A., Abdullah N. Treatments of Natural Fiber as Reinforcement in Polymer Composites - A Short Review. "Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites" is a newly open Special Issue of I Nanomaterials i , which aims to publish original and review papers on new scientific and applied research and make boundless contributions to the finding and understanding of the reinforcing effects of various nanomaterials on the performance of polymer nanocomposites. References 1 Sharip N.S., Yasim-Anuar T.A.T., Norrrahim M.N.F., Shazleen S.S., Nurazzi N.M., Sapuan S.M., Ilyas R.A. A Review on Nanocellulose Composites in Biomedical Application. 34578502 4 Norrrahim M.N.F., Yasim-Anuar T.A.T., Jenol M.A., Mohd Nurazzi N., Ilyas R.A., Sapuan S.M. Performance Evaluation of Cellulose Nanofiber Reinforced Polypropylene Biocomposites for Automotive Applications. [Extracted from the article]

The depletion of petroleum-based resources and the adverse environmental problems, such as pollution, have stimulated considerable interest in the development of environmentally sustainable materials, which are composed of natural fiber–reinforced polymer composites. These materials could be tailored for a broad range of sustainable industrial applications with new surface functionalities. However, there are several challenges and drawbacks, such as composites processing production and fiber/matrix adhesion, that need to be addressed and overcome. This review could provide an overview of the technological challenges, processing techniques, characterization, properties, and potential applications of NFRPC for sustainable industrial applications. Interestingly, a roadmap for NFRPC to move into Industry 4.0 was highlighted in this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I Additive Manufacturing of Polymer-Fiber Composites i is a newly open Special Issue of I Materials i , which aims to publish original and review papers on new scientific and applied research, and make great contributions to the finding and understanding of the fabrication of fiber-reinforced polymer composites using current advanced additive manufacturing techniques. Additive Manufacturing of Polymer-Fiber Composites The aims of the inclusion of fiber in the polymer-based feed stock materials are to reduce the percentage of polymers and consequently reduce the harmful substances that may emit during the fabrication process in AM. [Extracted from the article]

There is an increased interest in the scientific community regarding the use of bio-based polymers in composites, as combining these matrices with natural fibres produces "green composites" or "bio-composites". At present, natural-fibre-reinforced-composites (NFRCs) are seen as realistic alternatives to synthetic- (e.g., glass) fibre-reinforced composites in many applications. [Extracted from the article]

The prioritization of agroindustry fiber wastes as raw materials in development of composites has become a challenge to obtain higher value-added products with targeted applications. In this study, natural fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites were elaborated using two fiber sizes (605 μm and 633 μm) of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and acrylic thermoplastic resin. In doing so, resin and fibers were mixed at room temperature by maintaining filler content of 42 wt. % for all formulations. In addition, thermomechanical compression moulding was used as composite manufacturing process at four processing temperatures (80, 100, 120, and 140°C). All formulations were subsequently exposed to salt fog spray aging for 330 hours. The effects of accelerated aging process on mechanical, spectrophotometric, and thermogravimetric characteristics were studied. On the whole, results have shown feasibility to use a facile method to elaborate composites based on waterborne acrylic matrix and OPEFB fibers. After salt spray testing, it was observed detectable levels of Aspergillus spp. of fungi in all samples, as a result of phylogenetic organization of microbial activity. Tensile behavior of composites was significantly influenced by processing temperature and fiber size. In broad terms, their overall mechanical properties were improved by the increase of temperature. Additionally, infrared spectroscopy results showed important bands mainly associated to biodegradation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. On the other hand, two degradation stages were mainly identified in thermogravimetric evaluation. Noteworthy, aging had no significant effect on the thermal properties of composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites are desirable structural materials due to their biodegradability. Moreover, natural fiber sources are abundant and the production of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites is moderately energy-consuming, leaving almost no carbon footprint behind. Among natural fibers, bamboo has attracted much interest as a promising reinforcement for different polymer matrices because of its favorable mechanical properties. Herein, a brief review of the different types of natural fibers, i.e., plant (especially bamboo fiber), animal, and mineral fibers, is provided, followed by an in-depth review of the case studies in the last decade that have focused on the mechanical properties of bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Among polymer matrices discussed are thermoplastics such as poly(lactic acid) and polypropylene and thermosetting resins such as polyester, epoxy, and phenolic. Finally, special attention is given to the surface modification of bamboo fibers, which has repeatedly been demonstrated to improve the mechanical properties of the composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the significantly developing fields of tissue engineering related to the fabrication of polymer-based materials that possess microenvironments suitable to provide cell attachment and promote cell differentiation and proliferation involve various materials and approaches. Biomimicking approach in tissue engineering is aimed at the development of a highly biocompatible and bioactive material that would most accurately imitate the structural features of the native extracellular matrix consisting of specially arranged fibrous constructions. For this reason, the present research is devoted to the discussion of promising fibrous materials for bone tissue regeneration obtained by electrospinning techniques. In this brief review, we focus on the recently presented natural and synthetic polymers, as well as their combinations with each other and with bioactive inorganic incorporations in order to form composite electrospun scaffolds. The application of several electrospinning techniques in relation to a number of polymers is touched upon. Additionally, the efficiency of nanofibrous composite materials intended for use in bone tissue engineering is discussed based on biological activity and physiochemical characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]