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Ni-doped WC/Mo 2 C composites for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) were synthesized in situ grown on carbon fiber paper (CFP) by molten salt method in argon at 1000 °C for 6 h, named as Ni-xWC-y/2Mo 2 C@CFP. The effects of different W/Mo molar ratios (3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3) on the phase composition, microstructures, and HER performances were investigated. The results showed that the W/Mo molar ratio had a synergistic effect in HER of Ni-doped WC/Mo 2 C composites, and as W/Mo molar ratio at 1:1, the composite presented the best electrocatalytic activity. Meanwhile, its surface appeared to have a wrinkle-like structure, and the biphasic heterostructure emerged at the intersection of the dual-phase WC and Mo 2 C lattices. The introduction of a biphasic heterostructure could promote charge transfer and improve HER efficiency. Predictably, the electrocatalysts with the optimal W/Mo molar ratio 1:1 exhibited the best hydrogen evolution performance, needed only 43.7 mV overpotential to reach 10 mA cm−2 current density with a Tafel slope at 21.3 mV dec−1. In this work, the high-efficiency electrocatalysts of Ni-doped 1WC-1/2Mo 2 C@CFP have been prepared, which provides an insight into theoretical research of composite carbon-based electrocatalysts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1 Amorphous carbon was facilely obtained via the treatment of waste papers with sulfuric acid. 2 The combination of amorphous carbon with graphitic carbon nitride leads to an increased photo-catalytic H 2 generation. 3 The enhancement in H 2 generation is resultant from the efficient separation of electrons and holes owing to the excellent electrical conductivity of amorphous carbon. Up-cycling of waste papers to value-added carbon products has significant environmental and economic benefits in real life. This work aims to recycle the waste papers to construct amorphous carbon modified graphitic carbon nitride composite photocatalysts for efficient photocatalytic hydrogen generation from water under visible light. Amorphous carbon (labeled as a-C) was yielded from the office waste papers by simple sulphuric-acid treatment and then combined with graphitic carbon nitride (g-CN) to form the g-CN/a-C composite photocatalysts by the thermolysis of a-C and melamine mixture. The addition of a-C enlarges the surface area of g-CN from 11.52 m2 g−1 of pristine g-CN to 28.12 m2 g−1 of g-CN/a-C-100. In addition, the a-C incorporation can significantly separate the electrons from the photoexcited g-CN owing to the excellent conductivity of a-C. As a result, an increased photocatalytic H 2 generation was realized under visible light exposure. The g-CN/a-C-100 sample with optimized a-C contents offers the highest photocatalytic H 2 generation rate of up to 17.1 μ mol h−1, which is ∼12 times higher than that of pristine g-CN under the same condition. The present study manifests the great potential of the recycling of office waste papers for increased photocatalytic H 2 generation. Graphical Abstract [Display omitted]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigated the hydrogen production and energy conversion from automobile shredder residues (ASRs) and paper mill sludge (PMS) co-gasified in a full-scale fluidized bed gasification plant. The results obtained from full-scale tests provided important information on the feasible assessment of ASRs-to-energy and the selection of alternative technologies for ASRs. Based on the analysis results of produced gas composition, H 2 , CO, and CH 4 composition produced from paper-mill sludge gasified were 4.17%–6.01%, 3.08%–4.32%, 1.71%–2.4%, respectively. Another C 2 gas composition ranged from 2.9% to 3.59%. The heating value of produced gas ranged between 1.64 MJ/Nm3 and 2.18 MJ/Nm3. In the case of 10% ASR addition, the heating value of produced gas was slightly increased to 1.84 MJ/Nm3-2.34 MJ/Nm3. The dioxin emission concentration of flue gas was approximately 0.064 ng I-TEQ/Nm3. It can comply with Taiwan regulation thresholds. The dioxin leaching concentrations of residues derived from gasification were also in compliance with regulation limits by the TCLP test. Meanwhile, in the case of 10% ASRs addition, the dioxin equivalence concentration of gasified residue was nearly 0.002 ng I-TEQ/Nm3. It was far below the current regulation standard limit. In summary, the results of this research have proved the performance of ASRs-to-energy by co-gasified with paper mill sludge using a full-scale gasification plant. The results obtained from this research also provided the information for selecting ASRs alternative technologies and operating full-scale gasifiers in the future. [Display omitted] • This study has confirmed the feasibility of co-gasification of calcium-rich PMS and chlorine-rich ASRs. • Adding 5%–15% of ASRs can maintain the regular operation of the full-scale commercial gasifier. • The synthesis gas has a composition of 4.91 vol% H 2 and 2.06 vol% CO, with a LHV of 1.93 MJ/Nm3. • The HCl emission could comply with regulation thresholds in co-gasification. • Dioxin reformation reduced significantly in co-gasification of PMS and ASRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper and pulp industry stands out to be one of the industries that are growing at a fast pace. Besides their characteristics such as high water consumption of 695.7 million m3 per year and subsequent high energy consumption, there are plenty of environmental impacts arising from this industry. Approximately 300 different types of harmful organic pollutants such as phenols, dioxins, and other organic substances are the significant effluents of the paper and pulp industry. As per the regulations set by the world health organization (WHO), the permissible limit of such pollutants is less than 1 ppm. Since the complete degradation of these pollutants is difficult to achieve using conventional techniques, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are widely being used as promising alternatives. On the other hand, depleting non-renewable energy resources are forcing industries to look for energy-efficient technologies. Photocatalysis is one such AOPs, which has the potential to solve the energy-wastewater nexus and is the primary focus of this review in terms of waste treatment from the paper and pulp industry. The photocatalytic materials induce photoreactions by receiving photon energy from light. However, harnessing light energy to the fullest is a challenge owing to the limited share of UV spectrum in sunlight. Different composite photocatalysts at different loadings, pollutant concentrations, and contact time along with their respective efficiencies are reported. The enhancement in thermodynamic driving force due to shift in Fermi energy levels with a suitable example is explained. The dependence of photocatalysis on various factors such as organic species, temperature, and light intensity makes it tough to predict the precise kinetic model in real-life experiments. The hydrogen production from the degradation of organic pollutants was discussed vividly and by optimization of the processes, an estimated amount of 0.45% of the total world's energy could be produced from the paper and pulp industry alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing flexible gas sensors based on reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are highly promising for practical application, however, it is still challenging due to the sacrificed solution-processibility and mechanical properties after reduction. To address this issue, we here introduce solution-processed rGO and designed a flexible hydrogen (H 2) film sensor by coupling with Pd nanoclusters as the activators via direct colloids mixing and subsequent vacuum filtration. The rGO/Pd nanocluster film features with structural compactness, surface homogeneity, excellent mechanical flexibility, high-efficiency output, and simplification of compositing method. In addition, the film sensor exhibited high response value, fast behavior and stable sensing behavior towards high-concentration H 2 compared with bare rGO film owing to the significant activation role of Pd nanoclusters with ultrasmall sizes (average size: 3.3 nm). Conclusively, this work provides an ingenious and effective way for the design of rGO-based flexible sensor, and shows promise for efficient portable and cost-effective monitoring of environmentally H 2 gases leaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon-based single-atom catalysts, a promising candidate in electrocatalysis, offer insights into electron-donating effects of metal center on adjacent atoms. Herein, we present a practical strategy to rationally design a model catalyst with a single zinc (Zn) atom coordinated with nitrogen and sulfur atoms in a multilevel carbon matrix. The Zn site exhibits an atomic interface configuration of ZnN4S1, where Zn's electron injection effect enables thermal-neutral hydrogen adsorption on neighboring atoms, pushing the activity boundaries of carbon electrocatalysts toward electrochemical hydrogen evolution to an unprecedented level. Experimental and theoretical analyses confirm the low-barrier Volmer-Tafel mechanism of proton reduction, while the multishell hollow structures facilitate the hydrogen evolution even at high current intensities. This work provides insights for understanding the actual active species during hydrogen evolution reaction and paves the way for designing high-performance electrocatalysts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Black liquor gasification was coupled with calcium looping. • Calcium looping for CO 2 capture and H 2 production was compared. • CO 2 capture route (39 €/t) was less expensive than H 2 production route (48.8 €/t). • CO 2 avoided cost was highly dependent on capital cost of black liquor gasification. • Export of H 2 had the lowest CO 2 avoided cost among black liquor gasification cases. Although considered one of the major energy-intensive industries (EIIs), the pulp and paper industry has also the potential for energy production from an industrial waste, black liquor. This study proposes black liquor gasification (BLG) coupled with calcium looping (CaL) as a CO 2 capture route for the pulp and paper industry. BLG with H 2 production (BLG-CaL-H 2), BLG with gas turbine combined cycle (BLG-CaL-GT) or with solid oxide fuel cell (BLG-CaL-SOFC) were considered. The dependence of carbon capture and storage (CCS) cost on the natural gas, limestone, electricity imported and H 2 sale prices aside the expenditures related with BLG-CaL were evaluated. The CCS route, based on CaL retrofitted to the pulp and paper plant, was found to have a lower cost of CO 2 avoided (39.0 €/tCO 2) when compared with BLG-CaL (48.8–57.1 €/tCO 2). Between the BLG-CaL scenarios, BLG-CaL-H 2 presented the lowest cost of CO 2 avoided (48.8 €/tCO 2) but the highest energy penalty. Based on the thermodynamic performance, it was shown that CaL retrofit and BLG-CaL-SOFC presented the best overall performance, turning the electricity importer reference plant into electricity exporter. The economic sensitivity showed that the capital requirement of BLG-CaL has a strong effect on the cost of CO 2 avoided for all alternatives. The H 2 production is also strongly affected by the H 2 sale price while BLG-CaL-SOFC and BLG-CaL-GT are strongly dependent on natural gas price. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Platinum (Pt)‐based electrocatalysts are the benchmark catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER); however, they are limited by the scarcity and high price. Introducing an adequate substrate to disperse and anchor Pt‐based species is a feasible pathway to improve the utilization efficiency. Herein, a quick and continuous spray drying route is proposed to fabricate 3D crumpled Ti3C2Tx MXene loaded with sub‐nanometer platinum clusters (Pt/MXene). The 3D crumpled structure inhibits the restacking of layered MXene nanosheets and guarantees the fully exposure of Pt clusters. The as‐prepared catalyst exhibits excellent HER performances comparable to commercial Pt/C, including a low overpotential of 34 mV to reach a current density of 10 mA cm−2, a superior mass activity (1847 mA mgPt−1), a small Tafel slope (29.7 mV dec−1), and a high turnover frequency (10.66 H2 s−1). The improved activity of Pt/MXene can be attributed to the charge transfer from Pt clusters to MXene, which weakens the hydrogen adsorption, as evidenced by the density functional theory calculations. The present contribution proposes a novel strategy to anchor low‐mass‐loading sub‐nanometer precious metal clusters on crumpled MXene with fully exposed active sites for catalysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effective scaling-up of redox flow batteries (RFBs) can be facilitated upon lowering the capital costs. The application of ubiquitous manganese along with hydrogen (known as H2−Mn regenerative fuel cells (RFC)) is seen as an effective solution for this purpose. Here, we aim to evaluate different positive electrodes so as to improve the key performance metrics of the H2/Mn RFC, namely electrolyte utilization, energy efficiency, and peak power densities. Commercially available carbon paper and graphite felt are used to show that the latter provides better key performance indicators (KPIs), which is consistent with the results reported for standard all-vanadium RFBs in the literature. Even better KPIs are obtained when an in-house carbon catalyst layer (CCL) is employed in combination with graphite felt electrodes (e.g., more than 80% energy efficiency, >0.5 W cm−2 peak power density and electrolyte utilization of 20 Ah L−1 for felt and carbon metal fabric (CMF), prepared by means of electrospinning and carbonization, in comparison with about 75% energy efficiency 0.45 W cm−2 peak power density and 11 Ah L−1 electrolyte utilization for felt on its own). It is envisaged that if the electrochemical performance of CCLs can be optimized then it could open up new opportunities for the commercial exploitation of H2−Mn systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biohythane, the promising gaseous biofuel, can be produced by the recirculated two-phase anaerobic digestion (R-TPAD). The effect of hydraulic retention time (HRT) as 30, 20 and 10 days on biohythane production via R-TPAD (recirculation ratio = 0.4) was investigated with co-digestion of food waste and paper waste. The results showed that HRTs of 30 and 20 days maintained stable performance for R-TPAD but HRT of 10 days led to the final decrease in biogas production. The failure in the end was attributed to the wash-out of microbes. The removal efficiencies for COD and carbohydrates were decreased by short HRTs while for VS it remained relatively stable at about 75.7 ± 4.0%. All through the operation, acidogenic phase and methanogenic phase were separated stably and butyrate pathway was the dominant pathway for hydrogen fermentation in the first stage. The microbial community in the first stage reached the highest diversity when total HRT was 20 days, where the hydrogen production rate was the highest. The genera Lactobacillus and Caproiciproducens kept dominating the dark fermentation in the acidogenic phase, and Ruminococcus and Methanosarcina were decreasing in the methanogenic phase. The biohythane yields were 411 mL/g-VS fed , 332 mL/g-VS fed and 253 mL/g-VS fed , respectively, where the H 2 contents were 18.4%, 14.7% and 8.8%, respectively. [Display omitted] • The R-TPAD system (R = 0.4) was operated for biohythane production. • R-TPAD operated under HRTs of 30 and 20 maintained stable performance. • Organic removals and biohythane yields were lowered by short HRTs. • Different microbial communities were identified by co-occurrence network. • Biohythane yields affected by different parameters were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • N-doped 1T-2H MoSe 2 /N doped carbon paper was fabricated by a low-temperature nitrogen plasma strategy. • N doping along with 1T phase into the 2H-MoSe 2 can expose more active edge sites and improve electrical conductivity. • N-MoSe 2 /NCP-30 only needs an overpotential of 274 mV to reach −200 mA cm−2 with Tafel slope of 54.7 mV dec-1. Molybdenum selenide (MoSe 2) is considered to be a promising catalyst for seawater hydrogen evolution, but its catalytic activity falls far short of requirements due to its inert surface. Here, self-supported N-doped 1T@2H-MoSe 2 /N doped carbon paper (N-MoSe 2 /NCP) was fabricated by a novel low-temperature nitrogen plasma strategy. In alkaline simulated seawater, the optimized N-MoSe 2 /NCP-30 only requires an overpotential of 274 mV to reach −200 mA cm−2 with Tafel slope of 54.7 mV dec-1, and exhibits stability over 24 h. This work proposes that the introduction of 1 T phase and N dopant into 2H-MoSe 2 using low-temperature plasma strategy can significantly facilitate the exposure of abundant active edge sites and boost the conductivity of MoSe 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of noble-metal-free electrocatalysts with high electrocatalytic performance and stability by adopting a scalable route is key to solving the energy crisis. We report a P Ni co-doped Mo 2 C-based electrocatalyst with high hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) catalytic activity prepared by a molten-salt method. Using phosphating times of 2 h and 4 h yielded P-Ni-Mo 2 C-2h and P-Ni-Mo 2 C-4h, respectively, both of which exhibited nanoflower-like structures that provided abundant active sites for the reaction. P-Ni-Mo 2 C-2h possessed good electrocatalytic properties with a low overpotential of only 140.5 mV at j = 10 mA cm−2 and a small Tafel slope of 50.7 mV dec−1 in an alkaline environment. P-Ni-Mo 2 C-2h exhibited excellent stability after 20 h of continuous hydrogen production. The use of an excessively long phosphating time caused a narrow down of spaces formed by nanoflakes, thereby reducing the HER performance of the electrocatalyst. The results of this study provide guidelines for the preparation of high-efficiency P Ni co-doped electrocatalysts. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper, in addition to its frequent usage in writing, packaging, printing, etc., has gained comprehensive utility as a flexible and conductive base in sensors, solar energy harvesting, conversion, and storage applications. This is due to its strategic-aiding aspect in terms of environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, recyclability, thin, flexible and lightweight nature, biocompatibility, etc., required to develop next-generation flexible devices. The signs of progress in paper-based devices are seen in matured technologies of the paper-based sensor for varied sectors. Also, there have been wide-ranging research efforts on developing paper-based high-performance energy harvesting, conversion, and storage solutions. However, it is a newly emerging area and needs a fundamental and state-of-the-art understanding for future devices development. Thus, the current review summarizes the research progress in this field utilizing paper, understanding fundamental properties w.r.t application, performance enhancement w.r.t material advancements (i.e. paper modification), and technological trends, which is otherwise not yet reviewed earlier. It further sheds light upon the perspectives for their associated and allied technological developments in the energy sector. [Display omitted] • Role of paper properties in energy related applications are discussed. • Paper based electrodes for energy harvesting and conversion devices. • Utilty of papers in energy storage i.e. supercapacitors and batteries is presented. • Challenges and perspectives of realization of paper based devices for energy sector are projected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this research is to carry out a literature review on the use of life-cycle cost (LCC) approaches for hydrogen technologies, by analysing its evolution over a decade (2012–2021). Methods: The SCOPUS database has been used to select relevant literature on the subject. After adoption of inclusion/exclusion criteria, a total of 67 papers were selected for our review. Then, we analysed these studies in terms of hydrogen technologies (fuel cells, electrolysers, hydrogen storage approach, etc.) covered by the LCC approaches. In addition, we also performed an analysis of the LCC features — type of LCC (conventional, environmental, social), integration with LCA/S-LCA, guidelines followed, system boundaries (cradle-to-farm gate, cradle-to-consumer, cradle-to-grave, cradle-to-cradle), functional units, financial tools (NPV, BEP, etc.), type of costs included, and life span — to provide a comprehensive view of LCC studies applied to hydrogen technologies. We also discussed and interpreted the most significant findings. Results and discussion: Our main results can be summarised as follows: (i) the number of LCC studies for application to hydrogen technologies has increased in the decade 2012–2021; (ii) China is the leading country for number of publications on the subject (15 papers), even if the most prolific author and institution are Iranians; (iii) a large number of studies performed LCC analysis including fuel cells and/or electrolysers based on proton exchange membranes; (iv) the most widely used LCC approach is a cradle-to-consumer (37 papers); (vi) almost all the studies on LCC of hydrogen technologies included initial, operation and maintenance costs; while other costs — replacement, external, end-of-life — are included in a limited number of papers; (vii) the net present value (NPV) is the most used financial tool. Conclusions: LCC analysis for application to hydrogen technologies has gained interest in recent years. However, the number of studies that explicitly follow LCC or LCA guidelines is very limited (only 7). The life-cycle cost analyses performed are quite incomplete in terms of costs included in the life-cycle stages. Besides, there is a lack of information and uniformity in the use of functional units and financial tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of ultralow-platinum electrocatalyst with a superior performance is of great interest for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Herein, we developed a facile approach of electrochemical deposition that is applicable to construct ultralow-Pt supported polyaniline-Ti3C2Tx MXene electrocatalyst (denoted as Pt/PANI-Ti3C2Tx). It is found that the aniline monomers and Ti3C2Tx nanoflakes were simultaneously electrodeposited on the surface of carbon paper and formed ordered nanostructures, which efficiently immobilizes more Pt species and promotes the H* conversion. The Pt loadings in the as-designed electrocatalyst is determined to be 2.2 µg cm-2, which is around two-order of magnification lower than that in the state-of-the-art Pt/C catalyst. While it exhibits excellent HER performance with low applied overpotential of 52 mV at a current density of 10 mA cm-2, a high turnover frequency of 14.13 H2 s-1 and high mass activity of 14 A mgPt -1, as well as excellent long-term durability. Additionally, density functional theory calculations reveal more favorable H adsorption-desorption by the synergistic effect between Pt and PANI-Ti3C2Tx facilitating hydrogen production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air Liquide has mastered this technology for 50 years, including high-pressure hydrogen storage, and Air Liquide's R&D has greatly contributed to it, whether by developing specific simulation tools to design delivery systems, or by defining good practices to make sure installations are fully safe. Air Liquide investments (Air Liquide 2021) Just like energy, hydrogen presents specificities that need to be understood and addressed. Been a pioneer in hydrogen technologies. [Extracted from the article]

To advance carbon neutrality policies, many countries are increasingly integrating Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) into their energy mix. However, for harnessing natural energy in power generation, RESs present challenges in output control, potentially leading to power imbalances. Such imbalances, when coupled with an excessive reliance on unpredictable RES, may necessitate the curtailment of grid-integrated renewable generation, halting production despite available capacity. This paper proposes strategies to mitigate the economic and operational efficiency impacts of increased RESs on the power grid. It focuses on the optimal operation of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) and Power to Gas (P2G) technology, which flexibly converts surplus electricity into hydrogen. By employing Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) for optimization and Stochastic Programming (SP) for the management of the uncertainty of renewable energy output, this paper evaluates the anticipated benefits of BESS and P2G applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • By slow pyrolysis, pulper waste is converted into a stable, carbon-rich material. • Chemical leaching upgrades the carbon-rich solid to a fossil coal substitute. • The process enables to recover more than 90 % of Ca and Al from pulper waste. • By precipitation, a reusable Al-based flocculating agent is obtained. • Clean hydrogen is produced by the reaction between metallic Al and HCl. This work aims to investigate the potentials of integrating slow pyrolysis and chemical leaching to recycle pulper waste (PW), the waste generated by paper mills, and consists of plastics, metallic films, and biobased polymers. The concentration of chlorine and metals is a barrier against PW valorisation by combustion or high temperature thermochemical processes. In this study, PW was tested by slow pyrolysis at 400 °C and 500 °C. Chemical leaching tests were performed by processing both chars in a 1.4 M HCl solution, at 80 °C for 2 h, to remove inorganic compounds and upgrade the char to a coal-like material. Then, precipitation by NaOH was conducted on the leachate. Slow pyrolysis led to a char mass yield around 30 %. Due to the high inorganic matter concentration (almost 36 %, mainly including chlorine, calcium, and aluminium), the char retained only 25 % of the feedstock's chemical energy, while the remaining 75 % was recovered in the pyrogas. Leaching of the 500 °C pyrolysis char led to extract 93 % of aluminium, and almost 100 % of calcium and chlorine, resulting in an upgraded char containing 15.5 % ash, comparable to a fossil coal. By char leaching, the oxidation reaction of aluminium could produce 8 kg hydrogen per dry ton PW. The effectiveness of the precipitated compounds as flocculating agents was demonstrated, enabling a closed-loop recycling in the same paper mill. In conclusion, the proposed process demonstrated to be an effective solution to convert PW into high quality products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has never been a more significant global demand for energy supply and efficiency projects. Between 2012 and 2035, it is anticipated that the need for primary energy and electricity will increase by 50% and 70%, respectively, primarily in emerging countries such as Indonesia, while in developed nations, the transition towards energy-efficient and low-carbon supply technologies will continue. This paper aims to determine the optimal technologies for implementing new and renewable energy in Indonesia, as well as the obstacles and challenges that impede the implementation of renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives and policies in Indonesia. The author identifies the most suitable technologies for performance in Indonesia using IFE and EFE matrices derived from the SWOT analysis framework, Multi-Attribute Decision Making (MADM), and sensitivity analysis. From this research, we can conclude that geothermal energy, ocean energy, and green hydrogen are the three most promising technologies for the near future in Indonesia. Future research on technological advancement, energy storage, and smart grid integration has room for enhancement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of distributed generation and power electronics technology, DC microgrids have made certain progress with their advantages of simple structure, economic efficiency, and easy control. Considering factors such as the geographical location of some residential areas, microgrids with fuel cells that can operate independently are also receiving increasing attention. In this paper, an online control method named virtual hydrogen consumption is proposed based on an independent DC microgrid which solves the problem of electro‐hydrogen conversion successfully. By solving the overall consumption function, the analytical solution is further obtained to realize the online control. Based on the results of RT‐LAB platform, the proposed method can maintain the output of fuel cell system in its high efficiency range with a lower volatility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper redefines hydrogen colour codes based on carbon dioxide emissions. It highlights that there are several colour codes, which disregard the carbon dioxide emitted in the hydrogen production process (e.g., electrolysis with renewable energy, steam reforming of natural gas, coal gasification, etc.). Some colours are used interchangeably for different technologies, while many colour codes do not assign a colour for all possible production pathways. Therefore, the existent framework is misleading and lacks scientific underpinning of colour labelling (e.g., green, blue, grey, black, yellow, purple, turquoise, etc.). This paper builds upon the work of Nikolaidis and Poullikkas and provides a qualitative assessment of the colour codes used to label various technologies. Based on a comparative analysis of the latest research and analysing hydrogen colour codes, this paper inquires whether there is or not, a common understanding of the hydrogen production pathways that lie behind each hydrogen "colour". This paper finds that there are major inconsistencies regarding the colours used, especially for technologies using fossil fuels as an energy source, but nuclear energy has also been found to have discrepancies in labelling. At the same time, there is only one colour used to describe a wide range of technologies using renewable energy (i.e., green). However, if carbon dioxide emissions of the corresponding production technology were visually represented using a predefined colour-code, the hydrogen produced with fossil fuels would have a less diverse colour range, than current colour palettes would suggest. Rather than being "grey" and "blue", coal, oil and gasbased hydrogen appear to be different shades of "brown" and "black". This finding illustrates that these technologies emit more carbon dioxide emissions than an initial labelling would suggest, which raises the question whether any colours of hydrogen, other than its "green" versions, is compliant with the objectives of the Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of hydrogen concentration distribution law of hydrogen-doped methane pipeline is directly related to the safety and stability of hydrogen-doped methane pipeline network. Based on the theory of fluid dynamics, this paper established a model of hydrogen-doped methane pipeline and simulated the operation and shutdown status of hydrogen-doped methane pipeline by adopting the computational fluid dynamics method and selecting the mixture multiphase model and standard k - ε turbulence model. This paper investigates the hydrogen concentration distribution law in hydrogen-doped methane pipelines as well as the influence law of different hydrogen-doping ratios, operating flow velocities, operating pressures, shutdown time and gas usage on the hydrogen concentration distribution in gas pipeline. The results show that: under the operation condition, there is a weak uneven distribution of hydrogen in the pipeline, the hydrogen-doping ratio, flow velocity, pressure on the hydrogen volume fraction of the change in the 0.9% or less, the effect can be ignored; in the shutdown status, there is a clear stratification phenomenon, the hydrogen-doping ratio increased from 10 to 25%, the change in the volume fraction of hydrogen in the 11.2% or less, a positive correlation; with the extension of the shutdown time to 900s, the pipeline firstly appeared obvious stratification phenomenon in the branch pipe, the thickness of the gas with hydrogen volume fraction above 40% on the upper wall surface of the branch pipe increased to 0.7 mm, and after the shutdown time was extended to 10 h, obvious stratification phenomenon appeared in the main pipeline, and the volume fraction of hydrogen near the top of the main pipe of about 16.5 mm was above 30%, which was positively correlated; In the shutdown status, the shutdown time has the greatest effect on the stratification phenomenon in the pipe, followed by the hydrogen-doping ratio, and the gas usage has the least effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become an integral part of modern life, serving both civilian and military applications across various sectors. However, existing power supply systems, such as batteries, often fail to provide stable, long-duration flights, limiting their applications. Previous studies have primarily focused on battery-based power, which offers limited flight endurance due to lower energy densities and higher system mass. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells present a promising alternative, providing high power and efficiency without noise, vibrations, or greenhouse gas emissions. Due to hydrogen's high specific energy, which is substantially higher than that of combustion engines and battery-based alternatives, UAV operational time can be significantly extended. This paper investigates the potential of PEM fuel cells as an alternative power source for electric propulsion in UAVs. This study introduces an adaptive, fully functioning PEM fuel cell model, developed using a reduced-order modeling approach and optimized for UAV applications. This research demonstrates that PEM fuel cells can effectively double the flight endurance of UAVs compared to traditional battery systems, achieving energy densities of around 1700 Wh/kg versus 150–250 Wh/kg for batteries. Despite a slight increase in system mass, fuel cells enable significantly longer UAV operations. The scope of this study encompasses the comparison of battery-based and fuel cell-based propulsion systems in terms of power, mass, and flight endurance. This paper identifies the limitations and optimal applications for fuel cells, providing strong evidence for their use in UAVs where extended flight time and efficiency are critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the potential for integrating renewable energy sources to meet the growing electricity and hydrogen demand in the Tunisian Sahel region, focusing particularly on solar and wind energies. The feasibility of installing a hybrid solar-wind energy system capable of producing both electricity and hydrogen is evaluated. With the help of the available solar and wind resources combined, the system not only generates electric power, but also produces hydrogen gas through electrolyzation, hence offering a multipurpose solution in terms of storage and supply. This flexibility is crucial due to the variability of renewable resources, which change daily and seasonally. The paper outlines the optimization process for designing the hybrid system deploying HOMER Pro software, according to local climatic conditions and demand profiles. The economic analysis reveals that the system can produce an average of 101.8 kg of hydrogen daily with a total photovoltaic capacity of 3,000 kWp, resulting in a project net cost estimation of approximately 5,494,912 euros. This analysis provides valuable insights for stakeholders considering similar projects, including the costs associated with photovoltaic systems, electrolyzers, and hydrogen storage solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a paradigm of clean energy, hydrogen is gradually attracting global attention. However, its unique characteristics of leakage and autoignition pose significant challenges to the development of high-pressure hydrogen storage technologies. In recent years, numerous scholars have made significant progress in the field of high-pressure hydrogen leakage autoignition. This paper, based on diffusion ignition theory, thoroughly explores the mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen leakage autoignition. It reviews the effects of various factors such as gas properties, burst disc rupture conditions, tube geometric structure, obstacles, etc., on shock wave growth patterns and autoignition characteristics. Additionally, the development of internal flames and propagation characteristics of external flames after ignition kernels generation are summarized. Finally, to promote future development in the field of high-pressure hydrogen energy storage and transportation, this paper identifies deficiencies in the current research and proposes key directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development of hydrogen production by water electrolysis, the coupling between the electricity-hydrogen system has become closer, providing an effective way to consume surplus new energy generation. As a form of centralized management of distributed energy resources, virtual power plants can aggregate the integrated energy production and consumption segments in a certain region and participate in electricity market transactions as a single entity to enhance overall revenue. Based on this, this paper proposes an optimal scheduling model of an electricity-hydrogen coupling virtual power plant (EHC-VPP) considering hydrogen load response, relying on hydrogen to ammonia as a flexibly adjustable load-side resource in the EHC-VPP to enable the VPP to participate in the day-ahead energy market to maximize benefits. In addition, this paper also considers the impact of the carbon emission penalty to practice the green development concept of energy saving and emission reduction. To validate the economy of the proposed optimization scheduling method in this paper, the optimization scheduling results under three different operation scenarios are compared and analyzed. The results show that considering the hydrogen load response and fully exploiting the flexibility resources of the EHC-VPP can further reduce the system operating cost and improve the overall operating efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Constant electrode (CE) operation of a unitized regenerative fuel cell (URFC) facilitates the optimization of each electrode. In this work, bipolar plates (BPPs) with different flow fields (FFs) are assessed, and a graphite BPP is compared with a titanium BPP in the cathode. Platinum coated titanium felt and carbon cloth and paper gas diffusion layers (GDLs) are tested in the cathode. The carbon BPP and GDLs operated with higher ohmic resistance than the titanium alternatives. However, the titanium GDL caused flooding in FC mode. Carbon GDLs can be applied in the cathode, where carbon paper operated with higher performance than carbon cloth. Titanium GDL is still required in the anode to resist the corrosive environment. A double-serpentine FF in the cathode and a parallel design in the anode were applied. Optimization of the URFC operating conditions under FC mode provided the best results at 80 °C, 2 bar abs , with saturated air and dry hydrogen and stoichiometry ratios of 2 and 8. This resulted in a round-trip efficiency of 56% at 0.1 A cm−2, 48% at 0.3 A cm−2 and 22% at 1 A cm−2. In comparison, 56%, 52% and 37% were obtained with a discrete regenerative fuel cell (DRFC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As new sources of energy and advanced technologies are used, there is a continuous evolution in energy supply, demand, and distribution. Advanced nuclear reactors and clean hydrogen have the opportunity to scale together and diversify the hydrogen production market away from fossil fuel-based production. Nevertheless, the technical uncertainties surrounding nuclear hydrogen processes necessitate thorough research and a solid development effort. This paper aims to position pink hydrogen for nuclear hydrogen production at the forefront of sustainable energy-related solutions by offering a comprehensive review of recent advancements in nuclear hydrogen production, covering both research endeavors and industrial applications. It delves into various pink hydrogen generation methodologies, elucidating their respective merits and challenges. Furthermore, this paper analyzes the evolving landscape of pink hydrogen in terms of its levelized cost by comparatively assessing different production pathways. By synthesizing insights from academic research and industrial practices, this paper provides valuable perspectives for stakeholders involved in shaping the future of nuclear hydrogen production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In light of growing concerns regarding greenhouse gas emissions and the increasingly severe impacts of climate change, the global situation demands immediate action to transition towards sustainable energy solutions. In this sense, hydrogen could play a fundamental role in the energy transition, offering a potential clean and versatile energy carrier. This paper reviews the recent results of Life Cycle Assessment studies of different hydrogen production pathways, which are trying to define the routes that can guarantee the least environmental burdens. Steam methane reforming was considered as the benchmark for Global Warming Potential, with an average emission of 11 kgCO2eq/kgH2. Hydrogen produced from water electrolysis powered by renewable energy (green H2) or nuclear energy (pink H2) showed the average lowest impacts, with mean values of 2.02 kgCO2eq/kgH2 and 0.41 kgCO2eq/kgH2, respectively. The use of grid electricity to power the electrolyzer (yellow H2) raised the mean carbon footprint up to 17.2 kgCO2eq/kgH2, with a peak of 41.4 kgCO2eq/kgH2 in the case of countries with low renewable energy production. Waste pyrolysis and/or gasification presented average emissions three times higher than steam methane reforming, while the recourse to residual biomass and biowaste significantly lowered greenhouse gas emissions. The acidification potential presents comparable results for all the technologies studied, except for biomass gasification which showed significantly higher and more scattered values. Regarding the abiotic depletion potential (mineral), the main issue is the lack of an established recycling strategy, especially for electrolysis technologies that hamper the inclusion of the End of Life stage in LCA computation. Whenever data were available, hotspots for each hydrogen production process were identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Hydrogen fuel is a non-toxic and source-abundant energetic system, but for its applications in the industry, several issues related to its storage must be resolved. Compounds like NaBH 4 appear as promising hydrogen sources, while can release the latter rapidly under controllable conditions with the use of heterogeneous catalyst systems. In this work, we synthesized a Ni–CoP catalyst by electrodeposition in a three-step process on carbon paper as support. The materials were characterized via SEM-EDS, XRD, and XPS techniques, while the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) from alkaline NaBH 4 solutions was tested as a batch experiment. Ni–CoP catalyst showed a high amount of H 2 generated in a short time (∼550 mL in 1 min) and remained at 78 and 54% of its initial performance after respectively 100 and 300 h of a continuous hydrolysis process. Our catalyst revealed exceptional performance and stability at higher temperatures and a long process time, which have been a rare subject of investigation in other reports for NaBH 4 hydrolysis in the past. This work paves a new perspective in studying catalysts for hydrogen generation from borohydrides. [Display omitted] • Ni–CoP catalyst was electrodeposited on a carbon support. • Material characterization proved the formation of desired active layers. • High efficiency and stability of the catalyst for a long-term NaBH 4 hydrolysis was revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper delves into the critical role of tax credits, specifically Sections 45Q and 45V, in the financing and economic feasibility of low-carbon-intensity hydrogen projects, with a focus on natural-gas-based hydrogen production plants integrated with carbon capture and storage (CCS). This study covers the current clean energy landscape, underscoring the importance of low-carbon hydrogen as a key component in the transition to a sustainable energy future, and then explicates the mechanics of the 45Q and 45V tax credits, illustrating their direct impact on enhancing the economic attractiveness of such projects through a detailed net present value (NPV) model analysis. Our analysis reveals that the application of 45Q and 45V tax credits significantly reduces the levelized cost of hydrogen production, with scenarios indicating a reduction in cost ranging from USD 0.41/kg to USD 0.81/kg of hydrogen. Specifically, the 45Q tax credit demonstrates a slightly more advantageous impact on reducing costs compared to the 45V tax credit, underpinning the critical role of these fiscal measures in enhancing project returns and feasibility. Furthermore, this paper addresses the inherent limitations of utilizing tax credits, primarily the challenge posed by the mismatch between the scale of tax credits and the tax liability of the project developers. The concept and role of tax equity investments are discussed in response to this challenge. These findings contribute to the broader dialogue on the financing of sustainable energy projects, providing valuable insights for policymakers, investors, and developers in the hydrogen energy sector. By quantifying the economic benefits of tax credits and elucidating the role of tax equity investments, our research supports informed decision-making and strategic planning in the pursuit of a sustainable energy future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen-powered mobility is believed to be crucial in the future, as hydrogen constitutes a promising solution to make up for the non-programmable character of the renewable energy sources. In this context, the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine represents one of the suitable technical solutions for the future of sustainable mobility. As a matter of fact, hydrogen engines suffer from limitations in volumetric efficiency due to the very low density of the fuel. Consequently, hydrogen-fueled ICEs can reach sufficient torque and power density only if suitable supercharging solutions are developed. Moreover, gaseous-engine performance can be improved to a great extent if direct injection is applied. In this perspective, a remarkable know-how has been developed in the last two decades on NG engines, which can be successfully exploited in this context. The objective of this paper is twofold. In the first part, a feasibility study has been carried out with reference to a typical 2000cc SI engine by means of 1D simulations. This study was aimed at characterizing the performance on the full load curve with respect to a baseline PFI engine fueled by NG. In this phase, the turbocharging/supercharging device has not been included in the model in order to quantify the attainable benefits in the absence of any limitation coming from the turbocharger. In the second part of this paper, the conversion of a prototype 1400cc direct injection NG engine, running with stoichiometric mixture, to run on a lean hydrogen combustion mode has been investigated via 1D simulations. The matching between engine and turbocharger has been included in the model, and the effects of two different turbomatching choices have been presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low or even zero carbon dioxide emissions will be an essential requirement for energy supplies in the near future. Besides transport and electricity generation, industry is another large carbon emitter. Hydrogen produced by renewable energy provides a flexible way of utilizing that energy. Hydrogen, as an energy carrier, could be stored in a large capacity compared to electricity. In Sweden, hydrogen will be used to replace coal for steel production. This paper discusses how the need for electricity to produce hydrogen will affect the electricity supply and power flow in the Swedish power grid, and whether it will result in increased emissions in other regions. Data of the Swedish system will be used to study the feasibility of implementing the hydrogen system from the power system viewpoint, and discuss the electricity price and emission issues caused by the hydrogen production in different scenarios. This paper concludes that the Swedish power grid is feasible for accommodating the additional electricity capacity requirement of producing green hydrogen for the steel industry. The obtained results could be references for decision makers, investors, and power system operators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green hydrogen is considered one of the key technologies of the energy transition, as it can be used to store surpluses from renewable energies in times of high solar radiation or wind speed for use in dark lulls. This paper examines the decarbonization potential of hydrogen for the heating industry. Worldwide, 99% of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, because hydrogen derived from renewable energy sources remains prohibitively expensive compared with its conventional counterpart. However, due to the expansion of renewable energy sources and the current energy crisis of conventional energy sources, hydrogen from renewable energy sources is becoming more and more economical. To optimize the efficiency of green hydrogen production and make it more price-competitive, the author simulates a hydrogen production plant consisting of a photovoltaic plant, a power grid, hydrogen storage, an electrolyser, a natural gas purchase option, a district heating plant and households. Using the deep deterministic policy gradient algorithm from deep reinforcement learning, the plant is designed to optimize itself by simulating different production scenarios and deriving strategies. The connected district heating plant is used to map how hydrogen can be optimally used for heat supply. A demonstrable outcome of this paper is that the utilization of deep deterministic policy gradient, over the course of a full year, can result in a competitive production of hydrogen derived from renewable or stored energy sources for the heating industry as a natural gas substitute. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing sales of conventional fuel-based vehicles are leading to an increase in carbon emissions, which are dangerous to the environment. To reduce these, conventional fuel-based vehicles must be replaced with alternative fuel vehicles such as hydrogen-fueled. Hydrogen can fuel vehicles with near-zero greenhouse gas emissions. However, to increase the penetration of such alternative fuel vehicles, there needs to be adequate infrastructure, specifically, refueling infrastructure, in place. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the different optimization strategies and methods used in the location of hydrogen refueling stations. The findings of the review in this paper show that there are various methods which can be used to optimally locate refueling stations, the most popular being the p-median and flow-capture location models. It is also evident from the review that there are limited studies that consider location strategies of hydrogen refueling stations within a rural setting; most studies are focused on urban locations due to the high probability of penetration into these areas. Furthermore, it is apparent that there is still a need to incorporate factors such as the safety elements of hydrogen refueling station construction, and for risk assessments to provide more robust, realistic solutions for the optimal location of hydrogen refueling stations. Hence, the methods reviewed in this paper can be used and expanded upon to create useful and accurate models for a hydrogen refueling network. Furthermore, this paper will assist future studies to achieve an understanding of the extant studies on hydrogen refueling station and their optimal location strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen is a versatile feedstock for various chemical and industrial processes, as well as an energy carrier. Dedicated hydrogen infrastructure is envisioned to conceptualize in hydrogen valleys, which link together the suppliers and consumers of hydrogen, heat, oxygen, and electricity. One potential hydrogen valley is the Bay of Bothnia, located in the northern part of the Baltic Sea between Finland and Sweden. The region is characterized as having excellent wind power potential, a strong forest cluster with numerous pulp and paper mills, and significant iron ore and steel production. The study investigates the hydrogen-related opportunities in the region, focusing on infrastructural requirements, flexibility, and co-operation of different sectors. The study found that local wind power capacity is rapidly increasing and will eventually enable the decarbonization of the steel sector in the area, along with moderate Power-to-X implementation. In such case, the heat obtained as a by-product from the electrolysis of hydrogen would greatly exceed the combined district heat demand of the major cities in the area. To completely fulfil its district heat demand, the city of Oulu was simulated to require 0.5–1.2 GW of electrolyser capacity, supported by heat pumps and optionally with heat storages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In hydrogen production, AC‐DC rectifiers must provide a high current and low voltage to the production load. This paper focuses on the efficient performance and elimination of the output ripple in these AC‐DC rectifiers. Unfortunately, efforts to reduce the current ripple often lead to lower efficiency, causing a contradiction. To address this issue, a low‐ripple high‐efficiency AC‐DC rectifier with an auxiliary compensator is proposed in this paper. The proposed rectifier can maximise efficiency while eliminating the current ripple, including the switching ripple and low‐frequency ripple. By incorporating a rectifier‐chopper and a buck circuit with a series‐connected capacitor, the auxiliary compensator, the solution provides an additional flow path for the current ripple at the rectifier output, successfully preventing the ripple from being output to the load. This paper offers a thorough exposition regarding the causative factors and sources of the switching and low‐frequency ripple. Furthermore, a detailed explication of the operating principle of the proposed rectifier system is provided. The losses and costs associated with auxiliary compensators are then analysed for persuasive purposes. Finally, simulation and experimental results verify the feasibility and superiority of the proposed rectifier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a set of comprehensive guidelines aimed at facilitating the widespread adoption of hydrogen in the industrial hard-to-abate sectors. The authors begin by conducting a detailed analysis of these sectors, providing an overview of their unique characteristics and challenges. This paper delves into specific elements related to hydrogen technologies, shedding light on their potential applications, and discussing feasible implementation strategies. By exploring the strengths and limitations of each technology, this paper offers valuable insights into its suitability for specific applications. Finally, through a specific analysis focused on the steel sector, the authors provide in-depth information on the potential benefits and challenges associated with hydrogen adoption in this context. By emphasizing the steel sector as a focal point, the authors contribute to a more nuanced understanding of hydrogen's role in decarbonizing industrial processes and inspire further exploration of its applications in other challenging sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of the pressure to meet carbon neutrality targets, carbon reduction has become a challenge for fossil fuel resource-based regions. Even though China has become the most active country in carbon reduction, its extensive energy supply and security demand make it difficult to turn away from its dependence on coal-based fossil energy. This paper analyzes the Chinese coal capital—Shanxi Province—to determine whether the green, low-carbon energy transition should be focused on coal resource areas. In these locations, the selection and effect of transition tools are key to ensuring that China meets its carbon reduction goal. Due to the time window of clean coal utilization, the pressure of local governments, and the survival demands of local high energy-consuming enterprises, Shanxi Province chose hydrogen as its important transition tool. A path for developing hydrogen resources has been established through lobbying and corporative influence on local and provincial governments. Based on such policy guidance, Shanxi has realized hydrogen applications in large-scale industrial parks, regional public transport, and the iron and steel industry. This paper distinguishes between the development strategies of gray and green hydrogen. It shows that hydrogen can be an effective development model for resource-based regions as it balances economic stability and energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper offers a thorough examination of the safety measures enforced at hydrogen filling stations, emphasizing their crucial significance in the wider endeavor to advocate for hydrogen as a sustainable and reliable substitute for conventional fuels. The analysis reveals a wide range of crucial safety aspects in hydrogen refueling stations, including regulated hydrogen dispensing, leak detection, accurate hydrogen flow measurement, emergency shutdown systems, fire-suppression mechanisms, hydrogen distribution and pressure management, and appropriate hydrogen storage and cooling for secure refueling operations. The paper therefore explores several aspects, including the sophisticated architecture of hydrogen dispensers, reliable leak-detection systems, emergency shut-off mechanisms, and the implementation of fire-suppression tactics. Furthermore, it emphasizes that the safety and effectiveness of hydrogen filling stations are closely connected to the accuracy in the creation and upkeep of hydrogen dispensers. It highlights the need for materials and systems that can endure severe circumstances of elevated pressure and temperature while maintaining safety. The use of sophisticated leak-detection technology is crucial for rapidly detecting and reducing possible threats, therefore improving the overall safety of these facilities. Moreover, the research elucidates the complexities of emergency shut-off systems and fire-suppression tactics. These components are crucial not just for promptly managing hazards, but also for maintaining the station's structural soundness in unanticipated circumstances. In addition, the study provides observations about recent technical progress in the industry. These advances effectively tackle current safety obstacles and provide the foundation for future breakthroughs in hydrogen fueling infrastructure. The integration of cutting-edge technology and materials, together with the development of upgraded safety measures, suggests a positive trajectory towards improved efficiency, dependability, and safety in hydrogen refueling stations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the hydrogen‐based integrated energy system (HIES), there exists a hydrogen trading market where hydrogen producers and consumers are distinct stakeholders. Current research in hydrogen trading predominantly focuses on high‐cost green hydrogen (GH), which is not aligned with the current trend of utilizing hydrogen from multiple sources. To address this, this paper proposes a hydrogen trading strategy between the virtual hydrogen plant (VHP) and electro‐hydrogen energy system (EHES) based on a bi‐level model, considering the synergy of GH produced from electrolyzers and blue hydrogen (BH) derived from natural gas in the HIES. In the VHP level, the objective is to maximize profit from hydrogen sales, allowing for the determination of hydrogen prices. In the EHES level, the goal is to minimize the cost of energy supply, leading to the formulation of GH and BH purchasing plans based on hydrogen prices. Additionally, this paper incorporates a risk‐averse model from the information gap decision theory (IGDT) to account for the impact of wind power output uncertainties in the VHP level. Subsequently, leveraging the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) conditions of the EHES level, the bi‐level problem is transformed into a solvable single‐level mathematical program with equilibrium constraints (MPEC), with the non‐linear equilibrium constraints linearized. The proposed bi‐level optimization model is validated through case studies encompassing industrial and residential hydrogen utilization within the HIES. The outcomes confirm the rationality of the proposed model, demonstrating that, in comparison to exclusively trading GH, the coordinated GH and BH trading can increase the profit of the VHP by 2.7% and reduce the costs of the EHES by 8.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]