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A thorough understanding of behaviour is essential to a species recovery effort, not only to inform management and husbandry decisions, but critically, to ensure optimum survival of released animals and their offspring. The endangered Plainswanderer, endemic to Australia and the only extant member of its family, is a bird of great conservation significance. Despite their phylogenetic uniqueness and conservation status, very little is known about their basic behavioural ecology. As part of the National Recovery efforts, an ex-situ breeding program was established to create an insurance population with the aim of releasing zoobred birds into their natural range. Such programs provide unique opportunities to conduct detailed behavioural and ecological studies. However, such studies are dependent on a comprehensive understanding of basic behaviour and associated social interactions, as well as a common vocabulary across institutions when it comes to describing patterns of behaviour. Therefore, a detailed ethogram is a vital first step. Here we have collated initial behavioural observations and descriptions from three main breeding institutions to create a unified ethogram across sites, with the aim of facilitating future research endeavours. Ultimately a systematic understanding of behaviour will not only improve management and conservation initiatives, but also the understanding of adaptability to potential threats going forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active, real-time observation of behavior is a time-consuming task, which is heavily resource-limited. At the same time, simultaneous observation of several individuals is often paramount to increase statistical rigor and eliminate potential temporal or environmental bias, especially in natural settings. This paper describes a low-cost video recording system created by using “off-the-shelf” components. The system is easy to use and can automatically record a wide variety of behavior and related ecological interactions and evolutionary processes. The system is sensitive enough to record the behavior of a broad range of animals from planarians, and small insects to humans. It can also be used to measure the behavior of plants. The system will also work during daylight hours or at night and can run continuously and autonomously for 48 hours, or longer if the video capture is motion-triggered or if bigger capacity batteries and data storage facilities are used.

The immunization and industrial bleeding of horses are essential stages for producing snake antivenoms. In Costa Rica, the traditional method involves stimulating the antibody response of horses by periodically injecting venoms, collecting hyperimmune plasma over three consecutive bleeding days, and repeating this process every eight weeks. While this method does not cause major physical or hematological issues in horses, the associated stress has not been evaluated. We compared this traditional method with an alternative method that involves injecting venoms, collecting hyperimmune plasma in a single bleeding day, and repeating the process every two weeks. We assessed stress (via serum and fecal cortisol levels and an ethological study), hematological parameters (hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration), and plasma productivity over eight months. Serum cortisol levels remained within the normal range for both methods throughout the immunization/bleeding cycle. However, serum and fecal cortisol levels were significantly higher in horses subjected to the traditional method compared to those in the alternative method. Neither method caused significant hematological alterations. Notably, the alternative method yielded a higher volume of plasma. We concluded that adopting the alternative method ensures horse welfare while improving industrial bleeding productivity. This approach may reduce costs and improve the availability of this essential treatment for vulnerable populations.

Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus laniger) are natural inhabitants of deciduous forests. They live solitary in their natural habitat. Their captive behaviour was studied by taking two Asiatic black bear pairs as study subjects in Lahore Zoo, Pakistan. The study was based on the provision of environmental enrichments to the bear pairs. Each pair's pre-enrichment activity budget data was collected by scan sampling method of 70 h, documenting the cage area and behavioural ethogram. The observed behaviours were resting, eating, drinking, locomotion, aggression, urination, defecation, fighting, pacing, playing, foaming, cage exploration, and being out of view. Two different enrichments were installed for two pairs. The first pair was provided with a feeding enrichment consisting of a large wood log applied with small wooden branches on it, upon which food-filled plastic tires were hung. The second enrichment was installed in the second bear pair's cage, consisting of two wooden platforms attached to the ground with iron rods. A 20-h post-enrichment activity budget of both bear pairs was recorded and compared with their pre-enrichment activity budget. The results showed that there was a significant increase (p=0.003) in cage exploration by the installation of feeding enrichment while a significant increase was observed in cage exploration (p=0.04), drinking (p=0.04), and resting (p=0.001) behaviours by the installation of wooden platforms. All the other activities had no significant impact of both enrichments. This study revealed the significance of environmental enrichments on the activity budget of black bears in captivity and can be proved as footprints for future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A thorough understanding of behaviour is essential to a species recovery effort, not only to inform management and husbandry decisions, but critically, to ensure optimum survival of released animals and their offspring. The endangered Plains-wanderer, endemic to Australia and the only extant member of its family, is a bird of great conservation significance. Despite their phylogenetic uniqueness and conservation status, very little is known about their basic behavioural ecology. As part of the National Recovery efforts, an ex-situ breeding program was established to create an insurance population with the aim of releasing zoo-bred birds into their natural range. Such programs provide unique opportunities to conduct detailed behavioural and ecological studies. However, such studies are dependent on a comprehensive understanding of basic behaviour and associated social interactions, as well as a common vocabulary across institutions when it comes to describing patterns of behaviour. Therefore, a detailed ethogram is a vital first step. Here we have collated initial behavioural observations and descriptions from three main breeding institutions to create a unified ethogram across sites, with the aim of facilitating future research endeavours. Ultimately a systematic understanding of behaviour will not only improve management and conservation initiatives, but also the understanding of adaptability to potential threats going forward.

Abstract The African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, has been used as a laboratory animal for decades in many research areas. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the nutritional physiology of this amphibian species and the feeding regimen is not standardized. The aim of the present study was to get more insights into the nutrient metabolism and feeding behavior of the frogs. In Trial 1, adult female X. laevis were fed either a Xenopus diet or a fish feed. After 4 weeks, they were euthanized, weighed, measured for morphometrics and dissected for organ weights and whole-body nutrient analysis. There were no significant differences between the diet groups regarding the allometric data and nutrient contents. The ovary was the major determinant of body weight. Body fat content increased with body weight as indicator of energy reserves. In Trial 2, 40 adult female frogs were monitored with a specifically developed digital tracking system to generate heat-maps of their activity before and up to 25 min after a meal. Three diets (floating, sinking, floating & sinking) were used. The main feed intake activity was fanning the feed into the mouth, peaking until 20 min after the meal. The different swimming characteristics of the diets thereby influenced the activity of the animals. Our dataset helps to adjust the feeding needs to the physical composition and also to meet the natural behavioral patterns of feed intake as a prerequisite of animal wellbeing and animal welfare in a laboratory setting.

Feedlot cattle were assessed for the consistency of enrichment brush use, higher incidence of natural behaviour, and less agonistic or abnormal behaviour compared to cattle without the brush. Cattle were assigned to one of two treatment pens, (1) access to a vertical grooming brush (EB; n = 89) or (2) no access control (CON; n = 80), for a period of 107 days. A Principal Component (PC) analysis was used on pen-side demeanour scores. Statistical analysis on pen-side behaviour and demeanour PCs tested for impact of treatment, day, and time. Frequency of brush use and the duration of each cow–brush interaction did not decrease over the assessment period. Self-grooming and allogrooming did not differ between treatments and were similar in frequency to brush grooming, resulting in total grooming being higher in the EB treatment group (p < 0.05). Cattle in the EB pen were scored as more content (PC 2; p < 0.05) and sociable (PC 3; p < 0.01), while CON cattle were scored as more anxious (PC 3; p < 0.05). Overall, this study suggests that the provision of a brush for enrichment enhanced lot-fed cattle wellbeing and permitted prolonged engagement, making it an effective enrichment device.

Simple Summary: Comparisons across equine social behaviour studies are currently impeded by the lack of a universally accepted ethogram. Therefore, this ethogram introduces standardised definitions for thirty-seven distinct equine social behaviours, drawing from existing ethograms and refining definitions through meticulous video observations. The definitions consider contextual cues, such as ear position and facial expressions, and communicative nuances. Video examples enhance clarity by capturing the dynamic flow and sequence of social interactions. This approach allows researchers to observe temporal aspects like sequence, duration, and rhythm, providing a detailed representation of equine social behaviours. Standardized definitions, along with video illustrations, promote clear communication among researchers and enable consistent cross-study comparisons, which, in turn, can contribute to a better understanding of how husbandry practices and health conditions impact equine social behaviour, aiding in the assessment and optimization of management practices to enhance equine welfare. Equine social behaviour studies face challenges stemming from the absence of a comprehensive ethogram with unequivocal standardised definitions and the resulting limits to data comparison across studies. To address these constraints, this ethogram offers researchers a standardised framework, defining thirty-seven distinct equine social behaviours supplemented by video examples for enhanced clarity. These definitions amalgamate insights from existing ethograms and are fine-tuned through meticulous video observations, encompassing contextual cues such as distinguishing between aggressive and playful circling based on ear position and facial expressions and communicative nuances to provide a detailed representation of equine social behaviours. Video recordings complement the standardised definitions by capturing the dynamic flow and sequence of social interactions. By providing a dynamic and detailed representation, videos allow researchers to observe the temporal aspects of behaviour, including the sequence, duration, and rhythm of interactions. These detailed data are crucial for interpreting social behaviours and unravelling the complexities of equine societies. Standardized and video-illustrated definitions of equine social behaviour facilitate clear and consistent communication between researchers, enabling cross-study comparisons regarding the impact of husbandry practices and health conditions on equine social behaviour, which, in turn, can facilitate the assessment and optimisation of management practices and equine welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Food Finding Test (FFT) olfactory paradigm without overnight food deprivation examined olfaction in aged (16-months-old) animals. Ethograms of three goal-directed behaviors towards hidden food (sniffing, finding and eating) elicited in male and female 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and their age-matched C57BL/6 wild-type counterparts with normal aging were meticulously analyzed with the support of video recordings. The new FFT protocol elicited longer ethograms than previously reported with the standard deprivation protocol. However, it was sensitive when identifying genotype- and sex-dependent olfactory signatures for the temporal patterns of slow sniffing, finding, and eating in AD and males, but it had a striking consistency in females. The impact of forced social isolation was studied and it was found to exert sex-dependent modifications of the ethogram, mostly in males. Still, in both sexes, a functional derangement was detected since the internal correlations among the behaviors decreased or were lost under isolated conditions. In conclusion, the new paradigm without overnight deprivation was sensitive to sex (males), genotype (AD), and social context (isolation-dependent changes) in its ethogram and functional correlation. At the translational level, it is a warning about the impact of isolation in the advanced stages of the disease, paying notable attention to the male sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In this study, the common social and communicative behaviors of the Fonni's Dog maintained under different outdoor conditions were investigated in order to improve the scant knowledge currently available on the behavior features of this dog breed. The preliminary results obtained here show that both dogs confined to kennels and free-ranging ones showed a strong collaborative motivation with the owner. This indicates a behavior consistent with the attitude of the Fonni's Dog. This study aimed to investigate the common social and communicative behaviors of the Fonni's Dog under different outdoor conditions. For this study, 70 adult dogs (3–7 years; 32 intact males, 38 intact females) belonging to the Fonni's breed were used. A total of 35 dogs were kept in kennels and 35 were free-ranging dogs in their sheep/goat livestock units. A behavioral repertoire was adapted from the literature and an ethogram was filled in for each dog. All dogs were evaluated in the presence of the owner. Fisher's exact test, following Bonferroni's correction, was used to test possible differences in the categorical variables (presence or absence of the behavior) between free-ranging dogs and dogs kept in kennels. The study revealed that several categories of the dogs' body language were associated with the management condition. However, the breed motivations (guarding and defense of the territory) were satisfied both in kennel and in the animals who were free in the property. The current study suggests a good behavioral balance of the Fonni's Dogs which could be attributed to correct communication between dogs and owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pavlovian fear conditioning has been extensively used to study the behavioral and neural basis of defensive systems. In a typical procedure, a cue is paired with foot shock, and subsequent cue presentation elicits freezing, a behavior theoretically linked to predator detection. Studies have since shown a fear conditioned cue can elicit locomotion, a behavior that – in addition to jumping, and rearing – is theoretically linked to imminent or occurring predation. A criticism of studies observing fear conditioned cue-elicited locomotion is that responding is non-associative. We gave rats Pavlovian fear discrimination over a baseline of reward seeking. TTL-triggered cameras captured 5 behavior frames/s around cue presentation. Experiment 1 examined the emergence of danger-specific behaviors over fear acquisition. Experiment 2 examined the expression of danger-specific behaviors in fear extinction. In total, we scored 112,000 frames for nine discrete behavior categories. Temporal ethograms show that during acquisition, a fear conditioned cue suppresses reward seeking and elicits freezing, but also elicits locomotion, jumping, and rearing – all of which are maximal when foot shock is imminent. During extinction, a fear conditioned cue most prominently suppresses reward seeking, and elicits locomotion that is timed to shock delivery. The independent expression of these behaviors in both experiments reveals a fear conditioned cue to orchestrate a temporally organized suite of behaviors.

Mammals must carefully balance rest with other behaviors that influence fitness (e.g., foraging, finding a mate) while minimizing predation risk. However, factors influencing resting strategies and the degree to which resting strategies are driven by the activities of predators and/or prey remain largely unknown. Our goal was to examine how mammalian resting strategies varied with trophic level, body mass, and habitat. We reviewed findings from 127 publications and classified the resting strategies of terrestrial and aquatic mammalian species into three categories: social (e.g., resting in groups), temporal (e.g., resting during the day), or spatial (e.g., resting in burrows). Temporal strategies were most common (54% of cases), but the prevalence of strategies varied with body mass and among trophic levels. Specifically, lower trophic levels and smaller species such as rodents and lagomorphs used more spatial and social resting strategies, whereas top predators and larger species used mostly temporal resting strategies. Resting strategies also varied among habitat types (e.g., rainforest vs. grassland), but this was primarily because closely related species shared both habitats and resting strategies. Human presence also affected resting strategies at all trophic levels but most strongly influenced top predators through shifts in rest timing. Human-induced behavioral changes in rest patterns cascade to modify behaviors across multiple trophic levels. These findings advance our fundamental understanding of natural history and ecology in wild animals and provide a roadmap for future comparative studies.

This study was conducted to investigate bit use in equestrian sports, focusing on welfare and performance. The multi-faceted study combines a literature review, survey, and video analyses. It evaluates research on physiological and behavioral effects of bit use, discussing concerns and benefits. The survey involved 250 equestrians, gathering data on experiences, opinions, and practices regarding bit usage. Results demonstrate that different bits are used during competitions and that riders prioritize factors like horse satisfaction, consistent connection, and chewing behavior when riding at home, while show use focusses on factors like control. Video analyses showed high conformity between the veterinary expert and show jumper, indicating a high degree of the results’ reliability and validity (Cohen's kappa coefficient of 0.82). Pelham and loose ring bits were most used (25.4% and 18.3% respectively). 3-ring and full cheek bits were associated with the most aversive movements, particularly through opening of the horse's mouth. Other aversive movements included putting ears back, tail swishing, and head tilting. The study highlighted the need for understanding bit preferences in various settings and cautioned against generalizing bit usage based solely on show observations. It also emphasized the potential for developing new designs that prioritize horse comfort and responsiveness, to enhance communication and partnership between horses and riders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Constructing an ethogram is the basis and prerequisite for an in-depth study of animal behavior and its complex relationship with the environment. The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) is the flagship species of endangered amphibians. In order to understand all of the behaviors and ecological laws of A. davidianus during the breeding period, this study monitored the behavior and related environmental factors of A. davidianus during its breeding period and constructed an ethogram of A. davidianus during the breeding period based on the PAE (Posture-Act-Environment) coding system. To accurately indicate the environmental conditions and thresholds required for reproductive behavior, quantitative data on water quality and habitat factors that have a significant impact on A. davidianus's behavior were included in the coding framework, such as water temperature (WT), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), etc. The ethogram included all behaviors of A. davidianus during the breeding period for the first time, totaling 45 behavioral patterns, grouped into 9 categories, which were discriminated and coded based on the corresponding posture, action, and environmental factors when each behavioral pattern occurred. The results lay a foundation for revealing the ecological law of A. davidianus's reproductive behavior and the suitable habitat; provide a scientific basis for optimizing the breeding technology of A. davidianus and protecting its wild population; and provide a reference for quantitative ethogram research on amphibians. The PAE (Posture-Act-Environment) coding system is a behavior coding system that divides the study of animal behavior into postures, actions, and the corresponding environmental factors, and they are coded correspondingly. It determines the analysis dimension to standardize the study of behavior. To investigate the behavior of A. davidianus during the breeding period, as well as their related postures, actions, and required environmental conditions, this study monitored the behavior of four pairs of A. davidianus in a simulated natural breeding pool using an infrared image monitoring system and recorded the changes in water quality during this process using a water quality monitoring system. The process of reproductive behaviors was observed and recorded with the random sampling method and the focal animal sampling method to classify and code the behaviors, and the ethogram of A. davidianus during the breeding period was constructed based on the PAE coding system. The result showed that 10 postures, 33 actions, 11 environments, and 45 behavioral patterns were differentiated and defined, which were classified into 9 categories of behaviors according to the behavioral function. Among these categories, five were distinguished as behaviors unique to the reproductive period, which include sand pushing, showering, courtship, oviposition, and parental care. The remaining four categories were daily behaviors: exercise, feeding, rest, and miscellaneous behaviors. The quantitative data on water quality and habitat factors that had a significant impact on the behavior of A. davidianus, such as water temperature (WT), pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO), were included in the coding framework, which more accurately expresses the environmental conditions and thresholds required for the breeding behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis, Lepidoptera, Crambidae) and Oriental armyworm (Mythimna separata, Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) are 2 major lepidopteran pests of the maize plant, especially the whorls and tassels. The aim of this study was to investigate competition between 2 lepidopteran pests of maize. Intraspecific and interspecific competition occurs when O. furnacalis and M. separata larvae interact with various stages of the maize plant. Therefore, determining whether this competition can decrease larval damage by causing adverse effects on larval growth is crucial. During the maize growing season of 2022, the interaction of these species was assessed in the experimental field of Jilin Agricultural University, China. Interspecific and intraspecific competition of larvae in different maize tissues and the influence of competition on larval development was determined in the fields. The results showed that first, probing behavior was significantly frequent in O. furnacalis larvae; intraspecific and interspecific attack was significant at 4th instar (with leaf, silk, and kernel). Interspecific defense behavior was significant at 3rd instar (without food). O. furnacalis larvae showed attack behavior toward M. separata larvae frequently. Second, competition increased the mortality rate of O. furnacalis larvae (intraspecific, 67%; interspecific, 33%) and decreased pupation emergence rate.Thus, intraspecific and interspecific competition might affect the competitive displacement of pest species sharing the same ecological niche, as well as the prevalence and population dynamics of pests, and help to develop integrated pest management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frugivorous insects use visual, chemical and tactile cues to find a suitable host for oviposition. However, these cues can vary greatly among fruit cultivars and condition, changing their susceptibility to fruit fly oviposition. The aims of this study were to (1) determine the effects of ripeness stage and damage on oviposition propensity by sexually mature, mated female oriental fruit flies, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), on five citrus types (species and cultivars) under choice and no‐choice conditions and (2) describe the oviposition behaviour of B. dorsalis on ripe fruit of the same five citrus types that were either damaged or undamaged under no‐choice conditions. All tests were conducted in the laboratory. The citrus types tested were Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck cv Delta Valencia orange, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck cv Glen Ora Late navel orange, Citrus limon (L) (Burm.f.) cv Eureka lemon, Citrus paradisi (Macfad.) cv Star Ruby grapefruit and Citrus reticulata (Blanco) cv Nadorcott mandarin. Peel physical properties and essential oil composition were determined for each citrus type and stage. Oviposition propensity of B. dorsalis was significantly greater on damaged citrus but was not correlated with fruit diameter, peel thickness, oil gland density or oil gland size. A total of 45 aromatic compounds were found to be significant between the five cultivars investigated, and 6 of 11 compounds were significantly associated with over‐ripe fruits. Bactrocera dorsalis spent a significantly greater proportion of time ovipositing in damaged citrus and showed higher aggression when oviposition occurred in undamaged citrus. These results suggest that the removal of damaged and fallen fruit is important for controlling this pest in citrus orchards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many animal species demonstrate individual personalities, studying these traits in wild sharks has proven challenging. Past research focused mainly on captive or juvenile sharks. Our ethological study of 31 wild adult bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) utilized an artificial provisioning site, amassing 2813 observations over 651 dives from October 2015 to January 2018 (27 months). Behavioural traits, including boldness-shyness and aggressiveness-placidity, were assessed using an ad hoc ethogram and an influencing factors table. This innovative approach not only allowed us to characterize individual shark behaviours but also to quantify their changes over time. Our findings suggest that adult bull sharks likely possess distinct personalities, spanning from extreme shyness to pronounced boldness, with varying levels of plasticity among individuals. Further exploration of shark personalities holds promise for advancing our comprehension of human–shark interactions and refining the management of potential aggressive behaviours exhibited by large shark species toward humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review of the behavioural patterns of chondrichthyan fishes, we have strived to produce a comprehensive catalogue of events and states and develop standardized terminology. Hence, actions that are slightly different, will be pooled under inclusive titles. Those used by different investigators are included in quotations within the textual descriptions of the motor patterns. This standardized ethogram will ideally lead to an increase in inter-observer reliability, giving researchers more confidence when reading colleagues' papers that report behaviours that appear similar to theirs despite being described for different species. The descriptions are presented under the following categories: (1) maintenance (2) courtship (3) filter feeding (4) scavenging (5) predation (6) sociality (7) aggression and (8) defence. The many actions are illustrated by line drawings and photographs in composite figures with an attempt to provide an example of each action for a chimaera, shark, and ray. The diversity of patterns is evident from this ethogram, consistent with observation that the brain-to-body mass ratios of cartilaginous fishes are greater than a third of the bird species and greater than those for some mammalian species. The major impetus for assembling this ethogram is to demonstrate the diversity of behaviours exhibited by members of the Chondrichthyes and to dispel the apocryphal belief that members of this taxon are 'simple feeding machines'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to present a proposal for using the focal animal recording technique to evaluate the welfare of buffaloes and to verify the association between each behavior and thermal comfort indices. The study was conducted in an experimental paddock located in Santarém, Pará, Brazil. A total of 10 female Murrah animals were used. The behavior of the animals was recorded during the day, with the use of three trained observers, for 72 consecutive h. Climatic variables were collected, and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) and the practical Buffalo Comfort Climatic Conditions Index (BCCCIp) were determined. The multivariate technique of principal components and Spearman’s correlation were employed. BCCCIp and THI were outside the thermal comfort zone at different times of the day. Grazing (P) was more frequent in the coldest hours of the day, while rumination occurred at different periods, mainly during the daytime and frequently in a lying position. There was a positive correlation between idle lying behavior and average temperature—Tmed (r = 0.583; p

Laboratory monkey ethograms currently include subcategories of abnormal behaviours that are based on superficial morphological similarity. Yet, such ethograms may be misclassifying behaviour, with potential welfare implications as different abnormal behaviours are likely to have distinct risk factors and treatments. We therefore investigated the convergent validity of four hypothesized subcategories of abnormal behaviours ('motor', e.g., pacing; 'self-stimulation', e.g., self-sucking; 'postural', e.g., hanging; and 'self-abuse', e.g., self-biting). This hypothesis predicts positive relationships between the behaviours within each subcategory. Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) data on 19 abnormal behaviours were obtained from indoor-housed animals (n = 1183). Logistic regression models, controlling for sex, age, and the number of observations, revealed that only 1/6 'motor' behaviours positively predicted pacing, while 2/3 'self-abuse' behaviours positively predicted self-biting (one-tailed p-value < 0.05). Furthermore, 'self-stimulation' behaviours did not predict self-sucking, and none of the 'postural' behaviours predicted hanging. Thus, none of the subcategories fully met convergent validity. Subsequently, we created four new valid subcategories formed of comorbid behaviours. The first consisted of self-biting, self-hitting, self-injurious behaviour, floating limb, leg-lifting, and self-clasping. The second comprised twirling, bouncing, rocking, swinging, and hanging. The third comprised pacing and head-twisting, while the final subcategory consisted of flipping and eye-poking. Self-sucking, hair-plucking, threat-biting, and withdrawn remained as individual behaviours. We encourage laboratories to replicate the validation of these subcategories first, and for scientists working with other species to validate their ethograms before using them in welfare assessments.

Understanding the species-specific behavioral needs of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) has led zoological gardens to focus on creating more natural and stimulating facilities. Studies have documented enhanced welfare through various methods, including environmental enrichment like mixed-species habitats, which could improve animal welfare. This study aimed to evaluate the behavioral adaption following the transfer to a new facility and the possible effects of environmental enrichment on an orangutan in captivity at Aalborg Zoo in Denmark. A newly arrived male was observed for analyzing behavioral changes in the weeks after relocation and introducing two small-clawed Asian otters (Aonyx cinereus) to the facility. Changes in behavior were analyzed using recorded behavior and an ethogram before and after the introduction of the otters. The expression of behaviors associated with stress and individual plasticity was analyzed, and the results indicated a change in the behavioral phenotype in response to the introduction of the otters. The study shows that behaviors associated with stress decreased after the introduction of small-clawed otters, suggesting that it had a positive effect on the behavior of the orangutan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From December 2019 to January 2020 and June to December 2020, using instantaneous scan sampling and ad-libitum sampling methods, the processes, contents and surrounding environments of behaviors of 17 captive François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) (three adult males, eight adult females, one subadult, two juveniles, and three infants) in the Wuzhou Langur Breeding Center, Guangxi were recorded, and the ethogram was established according to the “posture-act-environment”（PAE)coding system, which accounts for posture, act, environment, and ecological function of behaviors. Results showed that 16 postures,98 acts and 87 behaviors were recorded and identified. These observations could be grouped into 12 categories including feeding, egestion, thermo-regulatory, affiliative, agonistic, aggregation, communication, resting, locomotive, reproduction, abnormal and miscellaneous behaviors. Among them, agonistic behavior appeared if more than one individual stayed in the same cage. Abnormal behavior, which was seldom found in natural environment, was adopted by captive François’ langurs to cope with the artificial environment. Captive langurs showed similar behaviors of inelasticity to wild langur, such as foraging, resting, moving, drinking water, licking rock walls, and exiting and entering caves, and other behaviors of elasticity, including aggregation behavior, communication behavior, affiliative behavior, reproduction behavior, agonistic behavior, abnormal behavior and miscellaneous. François’ langurs show more elastic behaviors, likely because of large space of the cage. The preparation of the behavior spectrum of captive François’ langurs based on the PAE coding system is valuable for ex-situ conservation and outdoor behavioral research in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The study of insect reproduction is important from both basic and applied perspectives, particularly in mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), because of the diversity of reproduction modes and also because they are important agricultural pests. Sex pheromone control strategies are currently being developed for many species. Pseudococcus calceolariae (Maskell) and Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) are closely related species that often coexist in the same host plant. In this study, mating behavior, the possible occurrence of asexual reproduction, and hybridization between them were investigated. We confirmed that both species did not show asexual reproduction and required the presence of a male to reproduce. When couples of the same species were put together, males had a highly stereotyped mating behavior, and females showed an active role in mating success by accepting or rejecting males with abdominal movements. In hybridization trials, no progeny was obtained for any of the interspecific combinations. Moreover, in interspecific pairs, males mainly moved randomly in the arena without direct contact with females and females showed no willingness to mate, escape, or not move in the presence of the male. Therefore, courtship and copulation success in both species were directly related to the specificity of the mating pair and, there was no evidence of hybridization. This information is useful for the understanding of reproduction in this family and supports the development of management techniques based on sex pheromones to disrupt reproduction or to monitor these mealybug species populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine-assisted activities (EAAs) are considered a suitable innovative rehabilitative practice for children with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While standardized scales have been previously used as a tool to evaluate the effects of EAAs on different domains of functioning in ASD children, few studies have considered an ethological approach as a means to describe human–horse interactions in the context of ASD. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the behavior of 19 children with ASD, in comparison with 19 typically developing children (TD), during EAA sessions. We developed an ethogram from the video recordings to assess spatial relationships, social interactions, and communicative behaviors displayed by the child toward the horse, as well as the occurrence of problem behaviors. Results indicate that children's behaviors during EAA sessions are modulated by sex and age, while previous children's experience with EAAs appeared to improve interpersonal distance and horse handling. Results from this study highlight the importance of exploring children's behavioral responses during animal-assisted activities through direct measurements. This may allow linking the quality/strength of the child–horse relationship to the benefits obtained by the child, particularly in the social/communicative domain, a core symptom of ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intraspecific interactions shape animal social networks and regulate population dynamics. Species with solitary life histories rely on communication cues for population regulation, especially olfaction for many terrestrial mammals. Increasing evidence shows complex social structures among presumably solitary species and although social factors may play a key role in spatial organization, we lack insights into how species with solitary life histories structure and maintain sociospatial systems. Herein, we applied a social network approach to decode leopard, Panthera pardus , behaviour and interactions at marking sites that we monitored with camera traps. We found that leopard social units within our study area consisted of up to five individuals and that same-sex and opposite-sex interactions were equally likely to occur. Individuals behaved and responded differently depending on the type of interaction, serving both territorial and reproductive purposes. Temporal segregation allowed intersexual co-occurrence, while same-sex co-occurrence may be facilitated through familiarity with stable neighbours. Central individuals interacted within and outside their social unit and appeared fundamental to group stability. The removal of these individuals, such as through legal harvest or pre-emptively as an attempt to minimize depredation, may weaken social cohesion and ultimately affect population demography. Our findings on intraspecific co-occurrence in a solitary carnivore depict a complex social structure that can be important for population stability and might occur in other solitary species. • Solitary species support structured social networks. • Understanding social behaviour is key to guide species management. • Leopards behave and respond differently depending on social interaction. • Shared use of space facilitated through temporal segregation. • Leopards have social units with central individuals important for group stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to capture detailed interactions among individuals in a social group is foundational to our study of animal behavior and neuroscience. Recent advances in deep learning and computer vision are driving rapid progress in methods that can record the actions and interactions of multiple individuals simultaneously. Many social species, such as birds, however, live deeply embedded in a three-dimensional world. This world introduces additional perceptual challenges such as occlusions, orientation-dependent appearance, large variation in apparent size, and poor sensor coverage for 3D reconstruction, that are not encountered by applications studying animals that move and interact only on 2D planes. Here we introduce a system for studying the behavioral dynamics of a group of songbirds as they move throughout a 3D aviary. We study the complexities that arise when tracking a group of closely interacting animals in three dimensions and introduce a novel dataset for evaluating multi-view trackers. Finally, we analyze captured ethogram data and demonstrate that social context affects the distribution of sequential interactions between birds in the aviary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manual behavioral observations have been applied in both environment and laboratory experiments in order to analyze and quantify animal movement and behavior. Although these observations contributed tremendously to ecological and neuroscientific disciplines, there have been challenges and disadvantages following in their footsteps. They are not only time-consuming, labor-intensive, and error-prone but they can also be subjective, which induces further difficulties in reproducing the results. Therefore, there is an ongoing endeavor towards automated behavioral analysis, which has also paved the way for open-source software approaches. Even though these approaches theoretically can be applied to different animal groups, the current applications are mostly focused on mammals, especially rodents. However, extending those applications to other vertebrates, such as birds, is advisable not only for extending species-specific knowledge but also for contributing to the larger evolutionary picture and the role of behavior within. Here we present an open-source software package as a possible initiation of bird behavior classification. It can analyze pose-estimation data generated by established deep-learning-based pose-estimation tools such as DeepLabCut for building supervised machine learning predictive classifiers for pigeon behaviors, which can be broadened to support other bird species as well. We show that by training different machine learning and deep learning architectures using multivariate time series data as input, an F1 score of 0.874 can be achieved for a set of seven distinct behaviors. In addition, an algorithm for further tuning the bias of the predictions towards either precision or recall is introduced, which allows tailoring the classifier to specific needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complex behaviors of lizards remain poorly documented, especially in tropical species. We compiled the behaviors of the diurnal Bridled Forest Gecko Gonatodes humeralis through 52 hours of direct field observations performed during the day. In most observations (11%), we observed G. humeralis in pairs (a male and a female). We recorded nine behaviors from four categories: antipredator behavior, courtship, territorial behavior, and foraging; behaviors were recorded in different situations. Males exhibited all behaviors and interacted with most individuals they encountered. Females did not exhibit tail wagging (antipredator behavior). The most common behaviors were gular extension (territorial) for males and feeding for females (foraging). Tail displays were performed by both males and females and may function during courting, territorial, and antipredator behaviors. Tail displays (undulation, curling, raising, and wagging; this latter is not shown by females) may function during courting, territorial, and antipredator behavior. Our observations expand our knowledge of the complex repertoire of behavior patterns shown in the courtship, territorial, antipredator, and foraging exhibited by G. humeralis, suggesting that intrasexual selection in this species is an important factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Latrines are important sites for intraspecific olfactory communication in mammals, especially for solitary or widely distributed species. Communal latrines give visitors access to information about other visitors, notably conspecific chemical cues, even in their absence. Chemical communication has evolved to allow information transfer among individuals that, due to other ecological constraints, do not co-occur in time. Latrines can be difficult to find and monitor but provide useful information about the behavioral ecology of otters. The aim of this study was to describe the behaviors of Neotropical otters (Lontra longicaudis, Olfers, 1818) in two communal latrines using video-camera traps. A total of 1,651 one-minute footage of otters visiting the latrines were used to elaborate an ethogram that included individuals (1) passing by, (2) rubbing, (3) scent marking, (4) scratching, (5) in vigilance, (6) smelling, (7) defecating, (8) urinating, (9) digging, (10) selfgrooming, and (11) interacting with others. These results suggest that latrines are not only used by Neotropical otters to deposit feces and urine but that they also play a role in intraspecific communication. We suggest that L. longicaudis latrines function as information centers where individuals can monitor the location and activities of potential sexual partners and/or competitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Horses are highly social animals that preferably live in stable social groups and form long-term affiliative bonds. However, although their need for social interaction has not changed with domestication, domestic horses are often housed in individual stables with limited social contact with other horses or in group housing with regular changes in their group composition. Thus, this review aims to provide an overview of social ethograms to facilitate the inclusion of social behaviour in equine welfare assessment. A literature review yielded 27 papers that studied equine adult social behaviour using a well-defined ethogram. Social interactions were observed in 851 horses living in groups of 9.1 (mean +/− 6.8 s.d., range: 2–33) horses. A total of 40 (mean: 12.8/paper, range: 2–23) social behaviours were described, of which 60% (24/40) were agonistic, 30% (12/40) affiliative, 7.5% (3/40) investigative and 2.5% (1/40) neutral. The 27 papers focused predominantly on socio-negative interactions by including 67.7% agonistic and only 26% affiliative, 5.1% investigative and 1.2% neutral social behaviours in their research. The strong emphasis on agonistic behaviour contrasts sharply with the rarity of agonistic behaviour in stable horse groups and the well-established importance of affiliative interactions for equine welfare. Therefore, to advance the assessment of horses' welfare, the ethogram needs to be refined to reflect the nuanced and complex equine social behaviour better and consider more affiliative and also ambivalent and socially tolerant interactions. Sociality is an ethological need of horses that remained unchanged by domestication. Accordingly, it is essential to include horses' social behavioural requirements and the opportunity to establish stable affiliative bonds in equine management systems and welfare assessment. Thus, this systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date analysis of equine intraspecific social ethograms. A literature review yielded 27 papers that met the inclusion criteria by studying adult (≥2 years) equine social behaviour with conspecifics using a well-defined ethogram. Social interactions were observed in 851 horses: 320 (semi-)feral free-ranging, 62 enclosed (semi-)feral and 469 domesticated, living in groups averaging 9.1 (mean +/− 6.8 s.d., range: 2–33) horses. The ethograms detailed in these 27 studies included a total of 40 (mean: 12.8/paper, range: 2–23) social behaviours, of which 60% (24/40) were agonistic, 30% (12/40) affiliative, 7.5% (3/40) investigative and 2.5% (1/40) neutral. The 27 publications included 67.7% agonistic and only 26% affiliative, 5.1% investigative and 1.2% neutral social behaviours in their methodology, thus focusing predominantly on socio-negative interactions. The strong emphasis on agonistic behaviours in equine ethology starkly contrasts with the rare occurrence of agonistic behaviours in stable horse groups and the well-established importance of affiliative interactions for equine welfare. The nuanced and complex equine social behaviour requires refinement of the ethogram with a greater focus on affiliative, ambivalent and indifferent interactions and the role of social tolerance in equine social networks to advance equine welfare assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor stereotypic behaviors (MSBs) are a kind of repetitive behaviors performed by stressed animals and are more common in captivity. This study aimed to assess whether the MSB in captive rhesus monkeys varies between males and females, and with the extent of visitor-monkey interactions. A group of six rhesus monkeys (two adult males and four adult females; among females, two were rescued from the wild and two were captive-born) housed in the Central Zoo, Kathmandu Nepal were sampled in the study. Behavioral observations were done by focal animal sampling for 30 minutes in each session from 8:00 AM till 10:00 AM in the absence of visitors and 10:00 AM-12:00 PM in the presence of visitors. At every 10 minutes interval, the number of visitors around the cage and the level of visitor-monkey interactions were scanned. Pacing and bounce were the MSBs performed by the zoo rhesus monkeys. Females, especially the rescued ones, performed significantly more MSBs than the males. An increase in visitor-monkey interaction involved the monkeys into more begging and feeding, which in turn lowered the MSBs. The findings of this study indicate that interactive enrichment such as feeding and visitor-monkey interactions help to reduce MSBs in zoo monkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To refine an on-hen mite feeding device, an ethogram was employed to measure the reactions of hens during a routine experimental procedure (feather plucking) and to assess effects of analgesic cream on those reactions. Methods: Three experimental groups were used; one treated with EMLA 5% before plucking (“EMLA group”); one with aqueous cream (“placebo group”) and a “no treatment” group. Behaviours were measured and compared on three days: ‘dummy handling day’ i.e. no plucking; ‘plucking day’, plucking the left thigh; and ‘treatment day’ i.e with right thighs plucked post-treatment. Poultry red mite feeding assays were performed to examine effect of creams on mite feeding rates, mortality and fecundity. All data were analysed using generalised linear (mixed) modelling approaches. Results: Use of the ethogram demonstrated no significant difference in hen behaviours in the EMLA group between dummy handling day and treatment day (p = 0.949) alongside a significant reduction in measured behaviours between plucking day and treatment day in the same group (p = 0.028). There was a statistically significant increase in measured behaviours from the dummy handling day to the plucking day in both placebo (p = 0.011) and no treatment group (p < 0.001). Effect sizes and directions were similar between dummy handling and treatment days in the ‘placebo’ and ‘no treatment’ groups, though not statistically significant (placebo, p = 0.064; no treatment p = 0.069). Mite feeding in the EMLA group was significantly lower than in the no treatment group in feeding assay 1 (p = 0.029) only. Mite mortality and fertility were unaffected. Conclusions: The ethogram successfully measured changes in observed behaviours between the dummy handling session and procedures. No adverse effects of EMLA cream on hens were demonstrated at 3mg/kg in hens. Use of analgesia for this routine procedure improves hens’ experiences during experimental trials.

Comparative psychology has a long history of investigating topics that promote comparisons across disciplines, constructs, and species. One critical component of comparative analyses is to select the best data collection technique. Unfortunately, these observational skills are not always taught to individuals who need them the most, animal care professionals. To demonstrate the applicability of appropriate data collection techniques to this applied discipline, we conducted a multi-day workshop that provided attendees training and practice with several data collection techniques that could be used to evaluate animal behavior in both spontaneous and enrichment-provided settings. The program included (1) a presentation on different data collection techniques and the types of questions each technique can address, (2) two 20-minute sessions of observation practice at two different facilities, (3) a final summary presentation of the data collected, and (4) pre- and post-surveys conducted immediately before and at the end of the workshop. Out of 177 survey respondents, almost a third reported using behavioral data collection to manage animal behavior prior to the workshop. More than 90% of the respondents had heard of behavioral ethograms and 68% of the respondents had used one previously. Many of the respondents reported familiarity with different observation techniques. Eighty-two individuals completed the majority of the survey with 81% expressing satisfaction with the initial workshop presentation. Respondents completing both surveys showed significant improvement in their knowledge of behavioral data collection techniques. Ultimately, the workshop introduced and clarified behavioral observation techniques and their applications in a variety of contexts. Respondents indicated that they could and would utilize knowledge gained from the workshop at their own facilities.

Motor stereotypic behaviors (MSBs) are a kind of repetitive behaviors performed by stressed animals and are more common in captivity. This study aimed to assess whether the MSB in captive rhesus monkeys varies between males and females, and with the extent of visitor-monkey interactions. A group of six rhesus monkeys (two adult males and four adult females; among females, two were rescued from the wild and two were captive-born) housed in the Central Zoo, Kathmandu Nepal were sampled in the study. Behavioral observations were done by focal animal sampling for 30 minutes in each session from 8:00 AM till 10:00 AM in the absence of visitors and 10:00 AM–12:00 PM in the presence of visitors. At every 10 minutes interval, the number of visitors around the cage and the level of visitor-monkey interactions were scanned. Pacing and bounce were the MSBs performed by the zoo rhesus monkeys. Females, especially the rescued ones, performed significantly more MSBs than the males. An increase in visitor-monkey interaction involved the monkeys into more begging and feeding, which in turn lowered the MSBs. The findings of this study indicate that interactive enrichment such as feeding and visitor-monkey interactions help to reduce MSBs in zoo monkeys.

Background: To refine an on-hen mite feeding device, an ethogram was employed to measure the reactions of hens during a routine experimental procedure (feather plucking) and to assess effects of analgesic cream on those reactions. Methods: Three experimental groups were used; one treated with EMLA 5% before plucking (“EMLA group”); one with aqueous cream (“placebo group”) and a “no treatment” group. Behaviours were measured and compared on three days: ‘dummy handling day’ i.e. no plucking; ‘plucking day’, plucking the left thigh; and ‘treatment day’ i.e with right thighs plucked post-treatment. Poultry red mite feeding assays were performed to examine effect of creams on mite feeding rates, mortality and fecundity. All data were analysed using generalised linear (mixed) modelling approaches. Results: Use of the ethogram demonstrated no significant difference in hen behaviours in the EMLA group between dummy handling day and treatment day (p = 0.949) alongside a significant reduction in measured behaviours between plucking day and treatment day in the same group (p = 0.028). There was a statistically significant increase in measured behaviours from the dummy handling day to the plucking day in both placebo (p = 0.011) and no treatment group (p < 0.001). Effect sizes and directions were similar between dummy handling and treatment days in the ‘placebo’ and ‘no treatment’ groups, though not statistically significant (placebo, p = 0.064; no treatment p = 0.069). Mite feeding in the EMLA group was significantly lower than in the no treatment group in feeding assay 1 (p = 0.029) only. Mite mortality and fertility were unaffected. Conclusions: The ethogram successfully measured changes in observed behaviours between the dummy handling session and procedures. No adverse effects of EMLA cream on hens were demonstrated at 3mg/kg in hens. Use of analgesia for this routine procedure improves hens’ experiences during experimental trials.

Historically, the role of aggression in the social lives of animals overwhelmingly focused on males. In recent years, however, female–female aggression in vertebrates, particularly lizards, has received increasing attention. This growing body of literature shows both similarities and differences to aggressive behaviours between males. Here, we document female–female aggression in captive Gila monsters (Heloderma suspectum). Based on four unique dyadic trials (eight adult female subjects), we developed a qualitative ethogram. Unexpected and most intriguing were the prevalence and intensity of aggressive acts that included brief and sustained biting, envenomation, and lateral rotation (i.e. rolling of body while holding onto opponent with closed jaws). Given specific behavioural acts (i.e. biting) and the results of bite-force experiments, we postulate that osteoderms (bony deposits in the skin) offer some degree of protection and reduce the likelihood of serious injury during female–female fights. Male–male contests in H. suspectum, in contrast, are more ritualized, and biting is rarely reported. Female–female aggression in other lizards has a role in territoriality, courtship tactics, and nest and offspring guarding. Future behavioural research on aggression in female Gila monsters is warranted to test these and other hypotheses in the laboratory and field.

Simple Summary: Behavioural analysis can be one of the elements that allows an assessment of the conditions in which animals are kept and their welfare. Animals kept in farmed conditions should be able to freely express their typical behaviour. The aim of the present study was to create an ethogram of the reproductive behaviour of American mink kept in farmed conditions. Reproductive behaviours include: chasing the female, grasping her neck with the teeth, marking the local area, mounting the partner, and sniffing the neck, anal and genital areas. The obtained results indicate that the American mink can express some natural reproductive behaviour in breeding conditions, which may also be an indicator of the welfare of these animals. Ethograms can serve as benchmarks against which abnormal animal behaviour can be identified, and then normal behaviour can be restored by appropriately modifying the environment in which an individual resides. The aim of the present study was to create an ethogram of the reproductive behaviour of American mink kept in farmed conditions. The research material consisted of 12 one-year-old male American mink, pearl coloured, selected randomly from among the varieties of coloured mink on the farm, and 60 two-year-old females. The animals participating in the study were grouped into two breeding sets, each consisting of 30 females and 6 males. Reproductive rituals included chasing the female, grasping her neck with the teeth, marking the local area, mounting the partner, and sniffing the neck, anal and genital areas. The copulation times recorded in this study varied greatly, ranging from several minutes to over two hours. The obtained results indicate that the American mink can express some natural reproductive behaviour in breeding conditions, which may also be an indicator of the welfare of these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Calf roping is a rodeo event that involves the release, pursuit, lassoing and leg-tying of a calf by a rider on horseback. Welfare concerns for calves used in these events include distress and potential physical injuries. This study evaluated video footage of calf roping (also known as rope-and-tie) from two rodeos and assessed calves' behaviour to identify any signs of distress during five different phases of roping. Calves in the study showed signs of distress and fear across all stages of roping. These findings suggest that calves experience fear and distress in calf roping events, which can inform discussions of the welfare of calves used in rodeos. There are significant welfare concerns with the use of calves in calf roping (also known as rope-and-tie) events in rodeos. However, little work has been carried out to scientifically assess calves' behavioural responses to the stressors of these events. This study evaluated video footage of calves (n = 15) during roping events from two rodeos. An ethogram was created to assess behavioural parameters during five phases of a calf roping event: Chase, Lasso, Catch and Restraint, Leg Tie and Release. Six behavioural parameters were observed during each of the five phases: Ear position (Axial or Back Up/Down), Eye White, Leg Movement (Slow/Fast), Tail Position (Rigid/Swish/Relaxed), Vocalisation and Evasive Behaviour. The presence or absence of each behaviour during each phase of roping was documented. Chi-squared analysis found significant (p < 0.001) differences in the proportions of behaviours observed in all five phases of the event. Binary logistic regression was performed, and six behaviours were observed to be significant across all phases: Evasive Behaviour (p < 0.001), Vocalisation (p = 0.002) and Legs Fast (p = 0.016) were more likely to be observed in comparison to Ears Axial, which was used as a reference category. Eye White (p < 0.001), Legs Slow (p < 0.001) and Tail Relaxed (p < 0.001) were less likely to be observed than Ears Axial. This study found that calves exhibit signs of distress in all of the phases of calf roping, including the Release phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Engaging undergraduate biology majors may present challenges for educators disseminating science concepts utilizing standard lecture classroom formats. Moreover, animal behavior courses teaching ethology may often require the use of live animals, field excursions, or students having to develop projects which can be both time-consuming or require financial investment, or that may not be well-suited to the flexibility of being taught online. Therefore, developing in-class activities which allow students to use self-discovery when generating their own observational data, work in groups, and practice hands-on science may serve to ameliorate these challenges facing faculty teaching animal behavior course content. To this end, I developed a straightforward, engaging in-class activity which allowed students to scan images available on the smartphone identifier iNaturalist to generate their own ethograms (catalogs of behaviors) for local state species. Students successfully described behaviors across a variety of animal taxa, reptiles, mammals, birds, and insects when generating their own ethograms and data, and they actively discussed how this activity enabled them to further understand both ethograms and their importance to animal behavior and overall how animals behave and allocate time performing a variety of behaviors. This activity can be modified for further use in both introductory and upper-level course work in organismal biology and can incorporate data analysis, graphing, or presentation skill sets for science majors.

Dystocia, a prolonged or non-progressive birth event, is the main contributor to lamb mortality in Australia and across the world. Dystocia can cause neonatal hypoxia, central nervous system (CNS) damage leading to increased risk of starvation, exposure and mismothering, and death. These prolonged birth events can also cause fatigue, injury and death in the ewe. Dystocia may interrupt the expression of maternal behaviour and the strength of the ewe-lamb bond, and consequently lamb survival. This study focused on the effect of dystocia on ewe behaviour in the 2 h post-lambing. A total of 18 ewes were chosen for continuous behaviour annotation and analysis (dystocic (n = 9) and eutocic (n = 9)) based on the quality of video recordings, length of stage 2 parturition and classification by a single experienced observer. Dystocic ewes showed significantly lower expression of maternal behaviours and a significantly greater expression of avoidance behaviours compared to eutocic ewes. Additionally, dystocic ewes performed fewer behaviours in total compared to eutocic ewes. Dystocia can significantly affect the quality and quantity of ewe maternal behaviour expression, leading to increased avoidance of the lamb, increased risk of maternal disinterest, and increased risk of death for the lamb. If dystocic events can be identified quickly and accurately, measures can be taken to ensure the ewe and lamb recover successfully. • Dystocic ewes performed fewer behaviour transitions postpartum than eutocic ewes. • Dystocic ewes performed fewer maternal behaviours (licking, bonding, circling). • Dystocic ewes spent less time overall on maternal behaviours. • Dystocic ewes performed more potential avoidance behaviours (eg. walking, standing). • Dystocia affects the ewe's ability to adequately care for her lamb(s) after birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Artificial milk feeding in fattening lambs would promote the functionality of the reticular groove reflex in order to avoid the rumen fermentation of selected feed supplements included in the milk replacer. However, there is a lack of information of the behavioural and welfare effects of such practice. Therefore, we studied the effects of extending or not milk replacer feeding during fattening with a high concentrate diet on the behaviour of 16 non castrated male lambs of the Manchega breed (eight lambs were in the group that were fed daily a bottle of milk, and the other eight were in the fully weaned group) by means of a video recording system. Both groups consumed the same solid diet (concentrate plus cereal straw) and were kept under the same conditions. Weaned lambs showed longer resting episodes and a higher frequency of self-grooming, whereas unweaned lambs showed a higher frequency of interaction behaviour. From the interpretation of such behaviours in the conditions of the present study, we concluded that the welfare status was almost similar in both groups. There is a lack of information on the behavioural and welfare effects of sustaining artificial milk feeding in fattening lambs. Therefore, the present work aimed to study the effects of prolonged artificial milk feeding during fattening with a high concentrate diet on the behaviour of lambs. The behaviour of 16 non castrated male lambs of the Manchega sheep breed (eight lambs were in the group that were fed daily a bottle of milk, and the other eight were in the weaned group) was recorded with four fixed cameras just before bottle feeding (~8:30 a.m.) of the unweaned group till four hours later, every day for 7 weeks. The solid diet (pelleted concentrate plus cereal straw) and housing conditions were the same in both groups. Solid feeds were offered ad libitum. There were no differences between groups in time spent eating nor in drinking, playing, scratching and oral activity behaviours (p > 0.05), but resting episodes were longer in weaned lambs (p < 0.05). Weaned lambs presented a higher frequency of self-grooming behaviour (p < 0.05), while the unweaned group performed a higher frequency of interaction behaviour (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the behaviours of lambs that were fed daily a bottle of milk during the fattening period did not substantially differ from the weaned individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Reptile behaviour and welfare are understudied in comparison with mammals. In this study, behavioural data on three species (Astrochelys radiata, Stigmochelys pardalis, Aldabrachelys gigantea) of tortoises were recorded before and after an environmental change which was anticipated to be positive in nature. The environmental changes differed for each population, but included a substantial increase in enclosure size, the addition of substrate material, and a change in handling procedure. A tortoise-specific ethogram was created to standardise data collection. Focal behaviour sampling was used to collect behavioural data. Changes in the duration of performance of co-occupant interaction and object interaction in the leopard (Stigmochelys pardalis) and Aldabra (Aldabrachelys gigantea) tortoises were observed following the environmental changes. The Shannon–Weiner diversity index did not yield a significant increase after the changes but had a numerical increase which was relatively greater for the leopard tortoise group, which had experienced the greatest environmental change. The leopard tortoises also demonstrated changes in a greater number of behaviours compared to the other species, and this was sustained over the study period. However, this included a behaviour indicative of negative affect: aggression. Whilst we are unable to conclude that welfare was improved by the management changes, there are suggestions that behavioural diversity increased, and some promotion of positive social behaviours occurred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ticks are important vectors of pathogens that endanger humans and animals. Study of their behavior under laboratory conditions is important for both predicting their behavior in natural conditions and understanding their involvement in transmission cycles of pathogens, which may lead to effective prevention of tick-borne disease transmission or establishment of effective preventive measures. The aim of our study was to describe the behavior of D. reticulatus ticks using laboratory assay. We focused on the description of individual behavioral units during their vertical movement. The assay consisted of glass beakers filled with sand and an embedded glass rod. We observed 10 different behavioral units, 4 of which have not yet been described: body posturing called "jogger", leg grooming, and body or leg jerking. The most frequent tick behavior observed was an upwards positioning of the two front legs while the body remained motionless (88.9%). Other common observations were both horizontal (63%) and vertical (58.0%) body posturing with all legs lowered, followed by questing behavior (51.9%). Ticks spent the most time questing (75.2%), crawling (54.7%), and grooming legs on the right side (23%). We did not observe any differences between males and females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]