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The host-parasite system "Emys trinacris - Placobdella costata - Haemogregarina stepanowi"is known for Sicily, but scarce information is available to date about the distribution of the two parasites P. costata and H. stepanowi on the island. Therefore, an extensive sampling effort through visual census and collection and analysis of blood smears of the endemic Sicilian pond turtle E. trinacris was carried out in 46 water bodies scattered throughout mainland Sicily. Our findings revealed that the distribution of both parasites is limited to the Nebrodi area, where the infection of H. stepanowi has shown a high incidence on the local turtle populations. Our data suggest no correlation between the current distribution of the two parasite species and environmental features. The current distribution of H. stepanowi and P. costata seems not to be relictual, but rather the outcome of a recent colonisation process. Considering the possible negative impact of both H. stepanowi and P. costata on their turtle host, their long-term effect on E. trinacris should be investigated.

Hemorrhois hippocrepis is a colubrid snake with a West Mediterranean distribution. It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula and Northwest Africa. The only Italian populations are found on the islands of Sardinia and Pantelleria. The phylogenetic relationships of these insular populations have been analysed for the first time on the basis of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b gene. The sequences were compared with those available from the geographic range of this species. The analyses showed that the Italian samples are part of a lineage that groups Tunisian and East Algerian samples, with which they share the same haplotype. These results strongly support the hypothesis of a recent origin of the Italian populations of Hemorrhois hippocrepis, probably determined by human-mediated dispersal from North Africa., Acta Herpetologica, Vol. 15 No. 2 (2020): Acta Herpetologica 15(2) 2020

Context: Dietary analyses are essential to achieve a better understanding of animal ecology. In the case of endangered species, assessing dietary requirements is crucial to improve their management and conservation. The Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) has experienced a severe decline throughout its breeding range in Europe and, in Italy, fewer than 50 pairs remain, and only in Sicily. This species is subject to major threats, including changes in landscape composition and, consequently, prey availability, which is further aggravated by the occurrence of viral diseases in the case of rabbits. Aims: To provide current data on the diet of the Bonelli's eagle in Sicily during the breeding period and to examine dietary shifts with regard to previous studies conducted in the same study area. To discuss possible implications for conservation of the Italian population of this endangered species. Methods: We used a combination of three methods, including pellet analysis, collection of prey remains, and imagery from camera-traps installed at nests, to examine the diet of 12 breeding pairs of Bonelli's eagle from 2011 to 2017. We compared this information with data collected between 1993 and 1998 in the same study area. Key results: In number, birds were the most frequently predated items (61.6%), followed by mammals (36.88%) and reptiles (1.52%). However, in terms of biomass, mammals were the main prey (65.71%), followed by birds (34.12%) and reptiles (0.17%). There was a decrease over the course of the current decade in the consumption of European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which was compensated for with an increase in both dietary diversity and breadth in bird consumption, a trend not observed in the earlier study in the same region. Conclusions: Here, we provide an updated assessment of diet composition of Bonelli's eagle during the breeding period. Interestingly, we found significant differences within the study period (2011-2017) in terms of frequency of occurrence, percentage of biomass, dietary diversity and dietary breadth in a species at risk. Furthermore, we found significant differences between the two study periods in both frequency and percentage of biomass, with significant changes in the consumption of lagomorphs and birds. Implications: Our results indicated that shifts in the diet are linked to changes in prey abundance, which may be contributing to population declines in the Bonelli's eagle population in Sicily. Overall, measures aimed at increasing main dietary prey should be promoted to favour occupation of new territories and enhance vital demographic parameters (i.e. breeding success and survival rate) of Bonelli's eagle across the species range. This would be particularly important for small isolated populations such as the Sicilian one.

The javelin sand boa {Eryx jaculus) is a snake belonging to the Erycidae family, distributed in North Africa, southern Balkans and the Middle East. Recently its presence was confirmed in Italy, in a small area along the coast of south-central Sicily, in the territories of Licata (province of Agrigento). This paper reports the current distribution area, of about 52 km2, obtained by the Minimum Convex Polygon method, using recent bibliographical ob-servations and three new observations carried out between 15 August 2014 and 30 Aprii 2016. The new findings are located east of the known Sicilian distribution area and indicate for the first time the presence of the javelin sand boa in the province of Caltanissetta. Two individuai were observed along the coast, during nocturnal activity dose to dunes and arable fields. A road killed sand boa was found in an agricultural territory. The preliminary analysis of three meristic characters indicates that their values are the same of those of both known subspecies, therefore it is not currently possible to suppose the own sub-specific taxon of the Sicilian population.

Knowledge of genetic diversity is important to wildlife conservation because genetically depleted populations experience an increased risk of extinction. Mammalian carnivores are characterized by small and fragmented populations and low dispersal, so that genetic erosion can lead to the fixation of deleterious genes relatively quickly, leading to morphological abnormalities. Kinked tails and cowlicks are indicative of inbreeding depression and have been described in two wild cat species so far, the puma (Puma concolor) and the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Here we report the first records of morphological abnormalities in five populations of the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) in Italy by using (1) camera-trapping and (2) necropsy of road-killed individuals assessed through genetic analysis. We collected 24,055 trap-nights from 251 cameras and recorded 566 wildcat detections, from which we identified 148 wildcats. Among these, 11 individuals had a kinked tail and four displayed brachyuria, whereas three wildcats from Sicily had cowlicks on the thorax. We recovered 28 road-killed wildcats and two of them (from Sicily and Friuli Venezia Giulia) had a kinked tail. Among these, one female with a kinked tail had a male foetus with a kinked tail, which proved that this characteristic was genetically inherited. We are unsure why brachyuria or cowlicks were not detected across all monitored wildcat populations, given we found kinked tails throughout Italy. The frequencies at which we have detected these abnormalities in wildcats are far lower than reports from Florida panthers (Puma concolor). Future research is needed to verify whether these abnormalities are also associated with low genetic diversity or other morphological defects which might lower fitness. We recommend a nationwide effort, using these techniques within a standardized sampling design, to further understand the status of the wildcat in Italy.

Sicily (Italy) hosts a “relict”, endemic population of the birds Alectoris graeca whitakeri commonly known as Sicilian Rock Partridge. In the last decades, due to the risk of restocking with other European and Asiatic species for hunting purpose, a study was carried out to investigate the potential risk of hybridisation. The mtDNA control-region and nuclear microsatellites were genotyped. Due to the importance of the species, samples were mainly characterized by feather and stool samples, and rarely by carcasses found in the environment, from year 2011 to 2012. A panel of 7 microsatellite loci was validated. Three multiplexes that allowed the simultaneous amplification of 3 microsatellites, and 2 for other two microsatellites, for a total of 7 markers, were utilized. Results showed the occurrence of hybridization both towards the Middle Eastern species, A. chukar and the Northern European species, A. rufa. A total of 18.5% of the samples were collected from the wild environment showed a high degree of hybridization. This fact, even if linked to a small number of samples, highlights a potential risk of hybridization in 4 Sicilian provinces and underlines the importance of further investigations to understand the entity of the problem.

The Southern smooth snake, Coronella girondica, is a small-sized colubrid found in Northwest Africa and Southwest Europe. Mitochondrial DNA-based studies showed that the species can be split into five clades: two from Northwest Africa (one Moroccan and one Tunisian-Algerian) and three from Europe (one in the south-west of the Iberian Peninsula, one in the south-east of Spain and one in the rest of the European range). With regards to Italy, to date, only two samples have been analysed both from the Province of Pisa, Tuscany, pointing at that fact that genetic characterisation of Italian populations is still lacking. Accordingly, we have increased the sampling coverage with 19 new samples from northern and central regions of Italy, including two populations, apparently disconnected from the rest of the known range, and analysed their phylogenetic relationships using a portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Our results confirm the general phylogenetic arrangement detected in previous studies; specifically for Italian populations, no variability emerged from the Apennine populations, and a slight differentiation could be shown for the Alpine and subalpine ones. This pattern can be explained assuming past spread and recent isolation of C. girondica relict populations in the Alpine region, likely during the Last Glacial Maximum. Later, during the Holocene, the Italian Alps and the Po Plain went through various climatic variations and high anthropization which may have influenced C. girondica distribution through expansion and contraction processes.

Longevity data for wild felids are lacking in the literature. Here we report a camera trap recapture of a European Wildcat Felis silvestris at Mt. Etna in Sicily, Italy after nine years. This individual was clearly identifiable as its tail ended with a white ring rather than the typical black ring and had a unique shape of the dorsal stripe. At first capture on 26 May 2009, this cat was assessed as an adult, so that the likely minimum age of this individual at the time of recapture on 10 June 2018 must have been be at least 10 years. This finding represents the oldest known European Wildcat in the wild and provides insight into age structure in wildcat populations.

The Javelin Sand Boa, Eryx jaculus, is reported to be a predator of mammals, lizards and their eggs, and occasionally of birds and invertebrates, but data on its diet are scarce and fragmentary. Here we describe some aspects of the feeding behavior of E. jaculus on the Mediterranean island of Sicily. A total of 132 individual snakes were examined. Prey remains were found in 43% of them, both in their feces (82.5%) and gut contents (17.5%). The number of snakes observed and their feeding rate decreased in August, probably as a result of the relatively higher temperatures. Feeding rate increases were observed in adult females in September, perhaps to enhance body reserves before hibernation. The overall prey spectrum is dominated by small mammals, with a frequency of occurrence of 71.4%, but also consisted of lizard eggs (30.2%) and lizards (7.9%). Lizards seem to be occasional prey, and our frequent detection of ingested autotomized tails suggests E. jaculus has low efficiency as a saurian predator. We observed a relationship between prey type and snout- vent length of the snakes. Lizard eggs are most frequently eaten by smaller snakes, which could be linked to gape size ontogenetic variation. We found differences in the prey spectrum between sexes and age classes. Our results indicate that juveniles, adult males, and females seem to adopt different foraging strategies. Females probably adopt ambush predation on small mammals, while juveniles are active foragers of lizard eggs. Adult males appear to be slightly more versatile predators, consuming both types of prey, probably because of their high mobility rates during the mating period.

Human expansion can cause disturbance and intrusion of invasive species, which are detrimental to small carnivores. We investigated how European wildcats responded to disturbance from mushroom collectors, cattle and feral pigs in Sicily, Italy. We used detections from 76 cameras over 2 surveys (2015–2016 and 2018; camera days = 1985) to run occupancy and co-occurrence models and estimate overlap in activity patterns between species pairs. During 2015–2016, wildcats were detected at the same location with cattle, mushroom hunters and feral pigs at 14.4%, 26.3% and 17.1% of cameras. During 2018, wildcats were detected at the same location with cattle, mushroom hunters and feral pigs at 7.8%, 19.7% and 6.5% of cameras. Dominant species (A; cattle, mushroom hunters and feral pigs) did not affect occupancy of the subordinate species (B; wildcats) during 2015–2016. In 2018, the effect of species A on wildcat occupancy was evident for cattle-wildcat and mushroom hunters-wildcat pairs and wildcat occupancy was higher at sites where species A was not present. Probabilities of detecting wildcats at sites where species A was not present or not detected were higher than probabilities of detecting wildcats at sites where species A was detected. Overlap in activity levels was low between mushroom hunters and wildcats and higher between cattle and wildcats, but varied between surveys for feral pig-wildcat pair. Although results differed between survey periods, we suggest that wildcats generally avoided cattle, feral pigs and mushroom hunters, at both temporal and spatial scales. Anthropogenic disturbance, livestock and invasive species are emerging threats to wildcats and future conservation actions should consider our results.

Simple Summary In Nebrodi Park (Sicily, Italy), live many wild mammal species that move closer to human beings every day. The edible dormouse (Glis glis), in 2017 and 2018, was responsible for nut crop damage in the area. For this reason, a sanitary monitoring campaign involving 30 dormice was carried out by collecting rectal and conjunctival swabs and fur and nest content, which were then processed for laboratory examinations. A large presence of fleas belonging to Monopsyllus sciurorum was found. Necropsy of a dead dormouse revealed an infection of Mesocestoides lineatus, whose cysts were found in the abdomen cavity and on the liver; this is the first report of this in this species. Further studies are necessary to identify their role in the environment, considering the limited knowledge of this species in Italy. Abstract This study reports on the health status of the edible dormouse (Glis glis) living in Nebrodi Park (Sicily, Italy), responsible for nut crop damage in the area. In the frame of a monitoring campaign for potential zoonotic risk involving 30 dormice, rectal and conjunctival swabs and fur and nest content were collected for bacteriological and parasitological examinations, respectively. A large presence of fleas belonging to Monopsyllus sciurorum was found. Necropsy of a dead dormouse revealed an infection of Mesocestoides lineatus, whose cysts were found in the abdomen cavity and on the liver; this is the first report of this in this species. Further studies are necessary to identify their role in the environment, considering the limited knowledge of this species in Italy.

The only Italian population of false smooth snakes is found on Lampedusa, a small island located in the Sicilian Channel and part of the African continental shelf. The taxonomic identity of this population is currently uncertain, although it is most often attributed to Macroprotodon cucullatus textilis on a morphological basis. We present here the first genetic data on this population. The analysis carried out on the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene shows that the Lampedusan false smooth snake belongs to a clade shared with a single sample from central Tunisia. The genetic distance between this lineage and its sister group (M. abubakeri) is comparable to or higher than that found among many reptile species. To define the identity of this distinctive lineage, as well as the Macroprotodon taxonomic structure, further sampling efforts within the undersampled distribution area of this genus and more extensive analyses will be necessary.

A case of cannibalism in the false smooth snake Macroprotodon cucullatus on the island of Lampedusa

Under different environmental conditions, hybridization between the same species might result in different patterns of genetic admixture. Particularly, species pairs with large distribution ranges and long evolutionary history may have experienced several independent hybridization events over time in different zones of overlap. In birds, the diverse hybrid populations of the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and the Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis) provide a striking example. Throughout their range of sympatry, these two species do not regularly interbreed; however, a stabilized hybrid form (Passer italiae) exists on the Italian Peninsula and on several Mediterranean islands. The spatial distribution pattern on the Eurasian continent strongly contrasts the situation in North Africa, where house sparrows and Spanish sparrows occur in close vicinity of phenotypically intermediate populations across a broad mosaic hybrid zone. In this study, we investigate patterns of divergence and admixture among the two parental species, stabilized and nonstabilized hybrid populations in Italy and Algeria based on a mitochondrial marker, a sex chromosomal marker, and 12 microsatellite loci. In Algeria, despite strong spatial and temporal separation of urban earlybreeding house sparrows and hybrids and rural late‐breeding Spanish sparrows, we found strong genetic admixture of mitochondrial and nuclear markers across all study populations and phenotypes. That pattern of admixture in the North African hybrid zone is strikingly different from i) the Iberian area of sympatry where we observed only weak asymmetrical introgression of Spanish sparrow nuclear alleles into local house sparrow populations and ii) the very homogenous Italian sparrow population where the mitogenome of one parent (P. domesticus) and the Z‐chromosomal marker of the other parent (P. hispaniolensis) are fixed. The North African sparrow hybrids provide a further example of enhanced hybridization along with recent urbanization and anthropogenic land‐use changes in a mosaic landscape.

Camera trapping has a wide range of research application, but, while research designs are often focused on the study of a single focal species, cameras can also record other non-target species. Occupancy modeling using by-catch data can be a valuable resource to gain information on these species maximizing the scientific effort and efficiency of wildlife surveys. In this study, we used by-catch data from a European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) survey in Southern Italy to assess the habitat covariates determinant for the occupancy of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata). We recorded 33 detections at 17 out of 51 cameras (naive occupancy = 0.33). The best models fitted the data well, and porcupine occupancy estimate was 0.58 (SE +/- 0.09) with a detection probability of 0.11 (SE +/- 0.03). Average model showed that woodlands and number of shrub patches increased porcupine occupancy, while the reverse was true for altitude. Our results have improved the insights on the habitat use and ecological needs of this understudied species, and it is the first study that develops occupancy models for the porcupine using the presence/absence data obtained from a camera trap survey. Our study is an example of how camera trap surveys are often an under-exploited source of valuable information on a wider spectrum of sympatric species beyond the focal species for which camera traps were deployed. Minimum requirements for a camera trap survey to provide robust occupancy estimates for non-target species are discussed.

The presence of the Javelin sand boa in Sicily has recently been confirmed. Here the morphological characters and sexual dimorphism of the Sicilian population of Eryx jaculus are presented. Seven meristic and six metric characters in 96 specimens from Sicily were examined. The results show that tail length, snout-vent length, the distance between nostrils and the number of ventral and subcaudal scales are different between sexes. The characters found in the Sicilian population of the Javelin sand boa resemble those of the African population (ssp. jaculus) rather than the Eurasian population (ssp. turcicus), but biomolecular studies are necessary to understand its taxonomic identity., Acta Herpetologica, Vol 14 No 2 (2019)

Mitochondrial heteroplasmy is the result from biparental transmission of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to the offspring. In such rare cases, maternal and paternal mtDNA is present in the same individual. Though recent studies suggested that mtDNA heteroplasmy might be more common than previously anticipated, that phenomenon is still poorly documented and was mostly detected in case studies on hybrid populations. The Italian sparrow, Passer italiae is a homoploid hybrid form that occurs all across the Italian Peninsula mostly under strict absence of either of its parent species, the house sparrow (P. domesticus) and the Spanish sparrow (P. hispaniolensis). In this study, we document a new case of mitochondrial heteroplasmy from two island populations of P. italiae (Ustica and Lipari). Our analysis was based on the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2) that allows for a clear distinction between mitochondrial lineages of the two parental species. We amplified and sequenced the mitochondrial ND2 gene with specifically designed primer combinations for each of the two parental species. In two of our study populations, a single individual carried two different ND2 haplotypes from each of the two parental lineages. These findings contribute to current knowledge on the still poorly documented phenomenon of paternal leakage in vertebrates.

International audience; Knowledge of patterns of occupancy is crucial for planning sound biological management and for identifying areas which require paramount conservation attention. The European wildcat Felis silvestris is an elusive carnivore and is classified as ‘least concern' on the IUCN red list, but with a decreasing population trend in some areas. Sicily hosts a peculiar wildcat population, which deserves conservation and management actions, due to its isolation from the mainland. Patterns of occupancy for wildcats are unknown in Italy, and especially in Sicily. We aimed to identify which ecological drivers determined wildcat occurrence on Mt Etna and to provide conservation actions to promote the wildcats’ long-term survival in this peculiar environment. The genetic identity of the wildcat population was confirmed through a scat-collection which detected 22 different wildcat individuals. We analysed wildcat detections collected by 91 cameras using an occupancy frame work to assess which covariates influenced the detection (p) and the occupancy (ψ) estimates. We recorded 70 detections of the target species from 38 cameras within 3377 trap-days. Wildcat detection was positively influenced by the distance to the major paved roads and negatively affected by the presence of humans. Wildcat occupancy was positively associated with mixed forest and negatively influenced by pine forest, fragmentation of mixed forest and altitude. A spatially explicit predicted occupancy map, validated using an independent dataset of wildcat presence records, showed that higher occupancy estimates were scattered, mainly located on the north face and at lower altitude. Habitat fragmentation has been claimed as a significant threat for the wildcat and this is the first study that has ascertained this as a limiting factor for wildcat occurrence. Conservation actions should promote interconnectivity between areas with high predicted wildcat occupancy while minimising the loss of habitat.

Extant phylogeographical patterns of Palearctic terrestrial vertebrates are generally believed to have originated from glacial range fragmentation. Post-Pleistocene range expansions have led to the formation of secondary contact zones among genetically distinct taxa. For coal tits (Periparus ater), such a contact zone has been localized in Germany. In this study, we quantified gene flow between Fennoscandian and southern European coal tits using a set of 13 microsatellite loci. STRUCTURE analysis revealed four genetic clusters, two occurring on Mediterranean islands. German populations were genetically admixed but introgression of southern alleles was evident for Fennoscandian populations. In the south, we found negligible introgression of northern alleles (and haplotypes) but slight admixture of two southern genetic clusters in the Pyrenees and on the Balkan Peninsula and near complete sorting of these two allelic lineages on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Genetic distinctiveness of the Mediterranean island populations reflects general patterns of endemism in the Corso-Sardinian fauna and the Cypriot fauna. Wide-range gene flow in Central Europe suggests a broad zone of intergradation between subspecies of the coal tit rather than a narrow contact zone. This is in accordance with low morphological and bioacoustic differentiation of European coal tit populations.

Capsule: We report a significant reduction in population size and breeding success for the Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus in Sicily, its biggest stronghold in Europe, since the latest coordinated survey. Aims: To provide updated information on current population size of Lanner Falcon in Sicily and to compare breeding parameters with those obtained in previous studies. Methods: We performed an intensive coordinated field survey and literature review of breeding success parameters across the species range. Results: Overall, we monitored 126 territories throughout Sicily where the species had been reported in the last 15 years. Lanner Falcons were present only in 60 of them. Mean nest productivity (± standard deviation) was 1.09 ± 1.18 fledged young/checked pairs, flight rate was 2.22 ± 0.52 fledged young/successful pairs and breeding success was 49.0%. Conclusions: Indirect measures aimed at preventing abandonment of occupied territories should be applied, for instance by developing a network of priority areas and slowing down degradation of the pseudo-steppe habitats by agri-environmental schemes. Additionally, direct measures aimed at preventing nest robbery, including the organization of nest guarding activities, and reduction of anthropogenic disturbance and illegal shooting, must be encouraged in order to avoid territory abandonment.

Illegal trade in wildlife has been identified as one of the main challenges to wildlife conservation. In 2010, an illegal trade-ring trafficking in birds of prey was uncovered in Sicily (southern Italy). This illegal trade targeted the three most endangered species in Italy: Bonelli's eagle Aquila fasciata, Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus and Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus, all of them long-lived territorial raptors threatened with extinction across their European distribution. Illegal harvest primarily involved young birds and eggs taken from nests. After the discovery of these activities, surveillance camps and camera traps connected to the mobile Global System for Mobile communications network were established in nine Bonelli's eagle breeding sites in which illegal harvest was reported. Surveillance activities resulted in a sharp reduction in illegal harvest that has contributed to the recent increase in population size and number of breeding pairs of Bonelli's eagle in the island. This population represents 95% of the entire Italian population and is catalogued as Critically Endangered in this country. Importantly, our results highlight the impact of illegal harvest on the population dynamics of endangered species as demonstrated by a population viability analysis. This is particularly important in the case of insular species for which demographic recovery due to immigration from other geographic areas is unlikely. Systematic patrols by forestry police authorities, a resolute application of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species legislation via legal punishment, and the requirement of including all live captive specimens used for falconry in an obligatory DNA data bank would contribute to reducing the risk of extinction for small populations of endangered species of birds of prey.

The European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus (O.c) lives all over the world and it represents an important resource for many predators. It has been classified as a Near-Threatened species in the Red List of Vertebrates of Italy. It is present in mediterranean basin as two known subspecies: O.c. cuniculus and O.c. algirus. The mediterranean geographic distribution of the two subspecies is still not well known. In particular, in Sicily, lacking of deep studies, is based on the body size and morphological characteristics; there wasn’t a complete description of the actual existing subspecies and previous studies only reported the morphological characteristics of the sicilian rabbit population. In this study, we analyzed genetic data, mitochondrial (mt) cytochrome b (cytb), from the rabbit population in Sicily in a phylogenetic framework. This is the first study concerning the genetics of the sicilian rabbit, to reconstruct intraspecific phylogeny by comparing cytb mtDNA sequences of 13 newly isolated O.cuniculus haplotypes from Sicily and 7 individuals from other countries (Canada, France, Mexico, North Italy, South Africa, Spain, Sweden). Our results show that the rabbit population from Sicily has a mitochondrial type (Lineage B) that has been previously shown to be associated with O. c. cuniculus and is similar to sequences from rabbits in North-Est Spain, Southern France, Sweden and South Africa.