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The paper provides a review of modelling approaches for conformal wheel/rail rolling contact, with a focus on contact models in the context of railway vehicle dynamics simulation. Firstly, an overview is provided of conformal rolling contact between elastically deformable solids in a broad perspective, together with issues specific to wheel/rail contact. We highlight the increased complexity of conformal wheel/rail contact conditions compared to nonconformal ones, and describe the main tasks involved with the mathematical modelling of the conformal case. The approaches are summarised that are found in the present state-of-the-art, with a focus on the trade-off between accuracy and computational efficiency that is highly relevant to vehicle dynamics simulation. Finally, the paper proposes some challenges and future research directions. It is hoped that this review may be of help to researchers interested in developing new conformal wheel/rail contact algorithms for application in rail vehicle dynamics simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The layup quality of prepreg fibers onto complex surfaces is the most concerned issue in automated fiber placement (AFP), which is intimately related to the contact stress in tractive rolling contact. An analytical model of tractive rolling contact is proposed in this paper to clarify the defects mechanism during the AFP process, which considers the mold curvatures, mechanical properties of contacted objects, and pose information to make it suitable for irregular surfaces and arbitrary conditions. Classical Hertz theory in this model is expanded to 3D contact area, and multi‐scale deformations are united in the accurate calculation of contact stress under geometric constraints. Based on the model, the phenomena of adhesion, microslip, and the transition between them in AFP are systematically analyzed. For engineering applications, a discrete processing strategy is proposed to quickly obtain the local curvatures of the mold. Additionally, an algorithm is designed to calculate the contact stress of any path. Experimental results on an aircraft component demonstrate the accuracy of the proposed model in restoring the contact stress distribution during AFP. In conjunction with specific layup information, this model exhibits utility in forecasting laying defects and parameter optimization. Highlights: An analytical modeling approach based on Hertz theory is proposed to calculate the contact stress in automated fiber placement.A model‐based algorithm is designed and combined with the proposed discrete scheme to quickly restore the contact stress distribution.Contact states related to stress are systematically investigated and defects analysis based on computational mechanics results is illustrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) cracks online detection using eddy current testing (ECT) is in urgent demand. However, RCF cracks detection and evaluation in this way under moving conditions remains challenging due to the velocity effect in ECT. This paper aims to study the response of a transmitter-receiver eddy current probe to cracks under moving conditions and evaluate the depth and inclination angle of RCF cracks. In this paper, a high-speed eddy current testing system is developed to experimentally investigate the influence of coil gap, detection speed, and the lift-off on the eddy current probe's response under moving conditions. In addition, the temporal and amplitude features of the eddy current signal are extracted to characterise the depth and inclination angle of the RCF cracks. The experimental results indicate the eddy current probe's response can be improved by increasing the coil gap (coil centre distance) suitably, which can be done to compensate for the attenuation of the eddy current signal caused by detection speed and lift-off. The probe's response hardly changes with an increase in detection speed when the driver and pick-up coils of the eddy current probe completely overlap. The crack depth and inclination angle can be evaluated under moving conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high-speed turnout is a key part of railway track infrastructure. A process of wheel-load transition and single-wheel/multi-track contact take place in the turnout area, causing significant wheel-rail interaction. Most high-speed turnouts include movable-point crossings. To investigate the wheel-rail transient rolling contact behaviour in movable-point crossings, a 3D finite element (FE) model of a wheelset rolling over a crossing was introduced. The actual geometrical profile of the wheel and the rails in turnouts, the nonlinear materials, the actual relative motion between the point/wing rail, and the moving postures of the wheelset were considered. The simulated mode shape was compared with the experimental mode shape to verify the wheel-rail coupling model. Precise frictional rolling contact solutions and dynamic response, including wheel-rail force, contact stress, equivalent stress, equivalent plastic strain, and stick-slip distribution of the contact patches, were all studied. After this, the parametric analysis of dynamic wheel-rail contact behaviour was carried out. The simulated results indicate that the proposed explicit finite element method can characterise wheel-rail coupled dynamic interaction and mesoscopic rolling contact behaviour well, and improve the understanding of wheel-rail contact behaviour in the movable-point crossing panel of the high-speed turnouts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a rolling contact fatigue life prediction model for bearing steel. In the initial stage of rolling contact, the gradient structure appears in the subsurface region of bearing steel and the hardness shows a gradient distribution along the contact depth direction due to the roller compaction effect. This indicates that the fatigue resistance of bearing steel varies in the subsurface region. Besides, each subsurface material volume element is subject to different stress cycles. Based on Weibull theory, the survival possibility of subsurface volume elements is formulated. Then the rolling contact fatigue life is evaluated considering the stress state and anti-fatigue performance of each elementary volume of the subsurface material. According to the phenomenon and assumption, the model proposed for gradient material was applied in the rolling contact fatigue life prediction of the bearing steel GCr15 and validated with the fatigue experiment data in the open literature. Furthermore, the accuracy of the proposed model results was compared with the traditional empirical rolling contact fatigue life prediction models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, finite element simulation of asymmetric rolling in relief rolls of C11000 copper alloy in order to analyze the effectiveness of possible roll profiles and technological schemes of deformation was performed. The scientific innovation of this work lies in determining the patterns of development of stress-strain state parameters for various configurations of rolls, as well as determining the effectiveness of metal processing using various technological schemes. It was found that the use of trapezoidal relief makes it possible to increase the level of metal processing by almost 5 times compared with the use of radial relief. Comparison of technological schemes of deformation showed that deformation with 180° workpiece turning between passes significantly reduces the influence of the asymmetry factor. Deformation without changing the workpiece position between the passes has the opposite effect, and such a scheme significantly increases the influence of the asymmetry factor. Deformation with a transverse workpiece shift for the relief period between passes has the effect of a "golden mean." The conducted laboratory experiment for lead billet showed that the shape change of lead billet during computer simulation has a high level of convergence with real conditions. At each stage of deformation, the difference in the geometric parameters of the workpiece between the model and the experiment did not exceed 3-5%. When deforming a copper billet, the maximum difference level was 8%, which is the result of the low rigidity of the rolling cage with smooth rolls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, mechanical gears with cycloid engagement are increasingly used in mechanisms along with involute ones. In modern drive mechanisms, using pin gears and gears with intermediate rolling elements (IRE) is widespread, which simultaneously use cycloid gears. To a greater extent, pin gears are now being investigated, but IRE gears have their undeniable advantages. Many works are devoted to the study of cycloid toothing for certain gears, but the efficiency, especially that of IRE gears, has practically not been investigated. Therefore, the analysis of power losses in the engagement of a gear with IRE and a free cage (IREFC) is relevant. In this analysis, the authors of the work have used laws of mechanics, methods of energy flows and a secant normal. Mathematical expressions have been obtained to estimate slip speeds and power friction losses in the engagement of a gear with IREFC, and a formula has been derived to determine the efficiency of a mentioned mechanical transmission. The calculation of slip speeds and power losses at the points of contact of a rolling element with cycloid profiles of wheels for selected initial parameters of a gear with IREFC has been presented. The friction power and the overall efficiency of the entire gear engagement have also been calculated. This work shows that power friction losses at the points of contact of a rolling element with cycloid profiles of tooth wheels of a gear with IREFC are not the same. The friction power in the contact of a rolling element with a cycloid profile of a cam is an order of magnitude higher than the friction power in the contact of a rolling element with a cycloid profile of a crown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-order polygonal wear of wheels is one of the most severe technical challenges for China's high-speed trains at present, and its formation mechanism has not been thoroughly understood. The effect of train traction on the wheel polygonal wear of high-speed trains was studied based on a wheel/rail rolling contact finite element model. The frequency domain characteristics of unstable vibration of the wheel/rail system under rolling/sliding contact were studied by using the finite element complex modal analysis method. We also examined wheel/rail contact forces and friction in the time domain. The cause of the high-order polygonal wear of Chinese high-speed train wheels was revealed. The effect of the vehicle speed and the wheel diameter on wheel polygonal wear were investigated. The results show: the friction-induced vibration of the wheel/rail system will be excited when the rolling/sliding contact between the wheel and rail. The radial zoom modal of the wheel is an unstable mode, which is the main cause of the 21-22 order polygonal wear of the high-speed train wheels in China. Additionally, vehicle speed has a linear relationship with the order of polygonal wear. Reducing the vehicle speed helps to control the polygonal wear of the wheels. Wheels of different diameters exhibit varying degrees of polygonal wear, with smaller wheels being more resistant to friction-induced vibrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tribological performance of two polymeric friction modifiers, one based on an ester‐based compound and another based on an ethoxylated fatty ester and an organic friction modifier, oleamide, was studied at 50, 90 and 140°C using a Mini Traction Machine equipped with optical interferometry and electrical contact resistance. The ability to form surface film is found to vary among the friction modifiers and with temperature and rubbing duration. Despite a thinner film being formed, polymeric friction modifier (PFMs) exhibited lower friction and wear than oleamide at all the studied temperatures. Further, the PFMs reduced boundary friction more effectively at higher temperature. In accordance with lower boundary friction, a smoother surface topography characterized by low wear was exhibited by PFM lubricated surfaces at higher temperatures. Scanning electron microscopy‐energy dispersive x‐ray analysis and time‐of‐flight secondary ion mass spectrometry provided insights on the tribofilm formation. The improvement in the tribological performance of PFMs is attributed to temperature‐induced conformation transition of adsorbed polymer chains on the surface. The results are corroborated by data obtained from dynamic light scattering and gel permeation chromatography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an investigation on the forming characteristics of the tailor rolled blank of an aluminum alloy (Al-TRB) during three-point bending at room temperature through experiments and finite element simulations. The strain distribution, spring-back characteristics, and metal flow law of 6000 series Al-TRB during three-point bending are explored. The prepared Al-TRB has good bending properties, and no surface cracks appear in the bending region of the Al-TRB when bent to 180°. Surface roughening occurs on the outside of the bending region. Since the strain in the thick zone is greater than that in the thin zone, the surface roughening in the thick zone is more obvious than that in the thin zone. The spring-back angle in the thin zone is higher than that in the thick zone after three-point bending, and the overall spring-back angle of Al-TRB becomes larger with an increasing bending angle. When the transition zone of Al-TRB is centered and the length of the transition zone is certain, as the length of the equal-thickness zone increases, the spring-back angle of the thin zone is larger, while the spring-back angle of the thick zone is smaller. Under the premise of a certain total length of Al-TRB and the length of the transition zone, the larger the length proportion of the thin zone, the larger the overall spring-back angle of Al-TRB, and the larger the length proportion of the thick zone, the smaller the overall spring-back angle of Al-TRB. In addition, a slight metal flow phenomenon exists during three-point bending, which shows that the metal in the bending region will flow to the thick zone, and the metal at the edge will flow to the thin zone. At the same time, there are localized thickening and thinning phenomena in Al-TRB. This study is helpful because it provides theoretical guidance for designing molds for the actual production of Al-TRB parts for automotives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High‐speed trains (HSTs) often face challenges associated with car‐body hunting, resulting from factors such as complex operating environments and wheel‐rail contact degradation. These issues have a significant impact on the ride quality and operational safety. Passive suspension systems are inadequate to provide satisfactory dynamic performance for HSTs in such circumstances. However, active suspension systems can provide an effective solution. To address the car‐body hunting stability of HSTs, this study proposes a novel control approach called displacement inequality constraint following control (ICFC‐BIS) for the active suspension of HSTs. The ICFC‐BIS leverages the beneficial nonlinearity of bio‐inspired structures (BIS) to indirectly achieve excellent dynamic characteristics of the BIS through actuators installed in the suspension of HSTs, eliminating the need for actual BIS installation. Numerical simulation results demonstrate that the proposed ICFC‐BIS can effectively suppress car‐body hunting motion, thereby enhancing the ride comfort of HSTs. Consequently, the operational safety and ride comfort indices of HSTs equipped with active suspension systems are significantly improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bearing is the most vulnerable key part in rotating machine and bears important influence on the safety of equipment. Weakness and complexity are the two features of fault characteristic information carried by signals in the early stage of fault. For that, a fault is difficult to be recognized correctly. To identify a compound failure of bearing, the paper has brought forward a new self-adaptive option method for component signals that are sensitive to failure feature information of bearing. The sensitivity of kurtosis to bearing failure is exploited and the influence of signal complexity on the extraction of failure feature information is taken seriously, the paper has proposed the self-adaptive option method for component signals that are sensitive to failure feature by combined kurtosis with Complexity parameter included in Hjorth parameters. Furthermore, as the mid-value represents the general level of signal and is not affected by larger or smaller data, with the mid-values of kurtosis and Complexity parameter as the boundary, the paper has chosen the component signals which can more comprehensively show the failure features of bearing. Additionally, by principal component analysis (PCA), component signals selected are blended and reconstructed. Finally, by the Hilbert envelope spectrum of signals reconstructed, failure types of bearing are identified. To verify the effectiveness of presented method, the presented method is compared with conventional method on the basis of the exactly consistent data. The result indicates that the proposed method is superior to the traditional one in extracting fault information and identifying the multiple failure types of bearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The atomic‐level fundamental understanding of the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) mechanism using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is yet to be understood more clearly. In this paper, the atomistic behavior of the single‐crystal Ni is studied under dynamic rolling contact loading with the help of MD simulations at varying temperatures of the specimen. The deformed material is investigated using atomic strain analyses to evaluate the shear, volumetric strain distribution, and von Mises stress. Furthermore, dislocation and stacking–fault analyses are done to determine the deformation mechanism of the material with the oscillation cycles. Simulation studies infer that dislocation defects tend to increase with the temperature of the specimen logarithmically. The deformation majorly results in partial dislocations, indicating low stacking fault (SF) energy. The present work opens up a new field of study to understand the RCF mechanisms, which can provide the foundational work to understand other face‐centered cubic (FCC) materials. Highlights: The degree of straining and defect generation depends on cycles and ambient temperature.Specimen undergoes relaxation as von Mises stress decrease with increasing cycles.Partial dislocations are more dominant, indicating low stacking fault energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small-radius wheels are gradually introduced on special rail vehicles, such as double-decker coaches and piggyback wagons. It allows for a low-floor design and further increases the loading capacity of vehicles. From the perspective of vehicle dynamics, small-radius wheels have lower unsprung mass than the nominal wheels with a radius of 460 mm, and it could mitigate the wheel-rail dynamic interaction. Also, the contact patch size is reduced due to the increased curvature of the rolling contact circle, and they are more sensitive to changes in the track geometry than nominal wheels, especially in turnouts with discontinuous rail profiles. To investigate the dynamic response of small-radius wheels in a turnout, the Manchester Benchmark passenger coach with variable radius wheels and a left-hand turnout with a radius of 245 m are introduced in this work. The influence of wheel radii on the running performance, including the wheel-rail interaction and wheel damage behaviour, is investigated by numerical simulations. In addition, a sensitivity study is executed to evaluate the influence of unsprung mass and wheel flange friction on the performance of a vehicle whose wheel radius is 275 mm, and the potential remedy to mitigate high wheel wear is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When high-speed trains operate under braking conditions, the wheel-rail interaction increases significantly, which can lead to more serious wear problems. To analyze the evolution of wheel wear and the dynamic characteristics of wheel-rail under braking conditions, this paper first carries out long-term monitoring of the service state of wheel-rail during the operation period. The study analyzed the matching characteristics of the measured wheel-rail profile and calibrated the wear model by using the collected data. The resulting wear prediction model was then used to examine the wheel wear characteristics under braking conditions. The research results indicate that during the operation period, the wheel experiences tread concave wear within a range of ±20 mm of the rolling circle, at a rate of approximately 0.05 mm per 10,000 km. Meanwhile, the rail experiences top surface wear at a natural rate of about 0.09 mm per year. Concave wear causes the contact point of the wheel-rail to appear in two zones, resulting in a sudden change of contact geometric parameters. The concave worn wheel and rail with a 60 N profile have better matching compared to the 60 rail profile. Increasing the braking torque and wheel-rail friction coefficient will significantly increase the wheel wear depth on straight sections. On small-radius curve sections, rail side lubrication can significantly reduce high rail side wheel flange wear. A worn concave wheel can lead to unfavorable wheel-rail contact geometry characteristics and increase low-frequency components in the vehicle's lateral dynamic response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on the problem of strip shape quality control in the finishing process of hot rolling, a shape model based on metal flow and stress release with the application of varying contact rolling parameters is introduced. Combined with digital twin technology, the digital twin framework of the shape model is proposed, which realizes the deep integration between physical time–space and virtual time–space. With the utilization of the historical data, the parameters are optimized iteratively to complete the digital twin of the shape model. According to the schedule, the raw material information is taken as the input to obtain the simulation of the strip shape, which shows a variety of export shape conditions. The prediction absolute error of the crown and flatness are less than 5 μm and 5 I-unit, respectively. The results prove that the proposed shape simulation model with strong prediction performance can be effectively applied to hot rolling production. In addition, the proposed model provides operators with a reference for the parameter settings for actual production and promotes the intelligent application of a shape control strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heat transfer of a slab is significantly influenced by roll contact during the continuous casting process. The influence of roll contact calculation methods on the predicted heat transfer results has not been previously investigated. In this work, the non-uniform solidification of the wide-thick slab was studied with a 2D heat transfer model using real roll contact method (R. method) and equivalent roll contact method (E. method). The predicted slab surface temperature and shell thickness were verified with the measured results of the infrared camera and nail shooting experiments, respectively. Then, the predicted heat transfer results (including the slab surface temperature, mushy region length, and solidification end position) for the wide-thick slab with different thicknesses and different casting speeds were calculated using the E. method and R. method, and the influence of these two roll contact methods on the predicted heat transfer results was discussed for the first time. The results show that both these two roll contact methods could be applied to accurately predict the slab surface temperature without considering the transient temperature dips in the roll–slab contact regions. However, the deviation of the predicted mushy region length and solidification end position using the E. method are obvious. Compared with the R. method, the predicted mushy region length obtained using the E. method is larger and the solidification end obviously subsequently moves along the casting direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The selection and evaluation of the hyperelastic model of tread rubber material were of great value and significance to the clarification and application of the mechanical properties of tread rubber material. In this article, a non-contact tread rubber material rolling test bench was established. The improved digital image correlation method was used to calculate the strain rate distribution of the marked point under different test conditions. Combined with the stress distribution of the marked point, the rolling dynamic stress-strain characteristics of tread rubber material were obtained. Based on rubber material models under different tensile test modes, the parameter inversion identification of the hyperelastic model was completed, and the influence of the tensile test mode on the parameter inversion of the tread rubber hyperelastic model was revealed. A new method for selecting and evaluating the hyperelastic model of tread rubber material under rolling contact conditions was proposed. The selection criterion for the hyperelastic model of tread rubber material was developed under different rolling conditions. The experimental and analytical results show that the nonlinear degree of the constitutive relation of the hyperelastic model decreased with the increase in rolling speed. Compared with hyperelastic models under different tensile modes, the fitting error of the Yeoh model was less than 3%, and the overall fitting error of the Yeoh model was less than 2%. Therefore, the Yeoh model had better stability and accuracy and was more suitable for describing the rolling mechanical properties of tread rubber under rolling contact conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the energy dissipation and application of a simplified incremental wear model to assess its effectiveness in predicting the wear behavior of three specific bearing materials (phosphorus bronze, gunmetal, and aluminum 6061) under dry sliding/rolling conditions. The wear experiments were conducted using twin disk rolling/sliding tribometers at different applied loads of 49, 98, and 147 N, while maintaining a fixed slip ratio of 4%. The wear depth changes were periodically measured over a total sliding distance of 1860 m experimentally as well through simplified wear model in MATLAB®. The wear depths obtained from the experimental data were compared with the wear depths predicted by the incremental wear model for the three selected material pairs: (i) phosphor bronze, (ii) gunmetal, and (iii) aluminum alloy with EN31 as the counterface disk material. The simulated wear depth results showed good qualitative and quantitative agreement with the experimental results, with errors of 6.4, 6.8, and 10.7% for the aluminum disk, gunmetal disk, and phosphor bronze disk, respectively. Overall, the wear model was found to be computationally efficient in estimating the dry wear behavior and service life of chosen bearing tribo pairs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bonded insulated rail joints (Bonded IRJ) are essential to insulate rails and ensure normal operation of track-circuit signalling. Therefore, bonded IRJs cannot be replaced by the continuously welded joints and are widely existing in high-speed turnouts, by which the wheel-joint impact has been severely threatening the ride safety and comfort. Few researchers are concerned about how the damaged bonded IRJ deteriorates the wheel-rail contact behaviour in high-speed turnouts. To this end, this paper proposed a transient wheel-rail impact model based on the actual irregularities. Results show two different wheel-rail impact modes. The concave shape of the irregularities will induce the discrepancy of impact position when the running speed varies, thus the increase in speed causes the peak wheel-rail force to decrease in downward impact mode as opposed to upward impact. Besides, wheel-joint impact induces greater contact stress and area of contact patches in the vicinity of the end-post, contributing to wider light bands which are consistent with the on-situ conditions. Therefore, the proposed wheel-bonded IRJ impact model can provide guidance in the research of RCF and wear on bonded IRJ, explore the forming reason of the depression and provide a valuable reference for maintenance or damage detection of bonded IRJ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of thermomechanical coupled simulations for rolling contacts is challenging when the adjacent material is temperature-dependent or when there are cracks or other discontinuities on the contact surface. This paper proposes a novel thermomechanical coupled modeling method for rolling contacts using a nonlocal peridynamic (PD) approach. Fully coupled, ordinary state-based PD thermomechanical equations for the plane strain and plane stress cases are derived based on the strain-energy density, including thermal coupling terms, and detailed information on each parameter is provided. Subsequently, an algorithm for rolling thermal contacts in PD is proposed based on the penalty method. This study further provides a detailed modeling process and an algorithm for the proposed method based on a multi-rate time-integration scheme for numerical implementation. A typical two-dimensional (2D) wheel–rail rolling contact model is established to evaluate the performance of the proposed contact modeling method in wheel–rail thermal contact and to analyze the influence of temperature-dependent material and rail-surface cracks on the thermomechanical response. It is found that the contact stress and rail-surface temperature rise in the case of small creepages and temperature-independent materials are in good agreement with the analytical solution. In the case of large creepages, the mechanical and temperature results of using temperature-dependent materials and temperature-independent materials are quite different, and the frictional heat generated can cause martensitic transformation of adjacent materials. Rail-surface cracks cause a sharp increase in the contact stress and temperature rise near the cracks, and the high temperature also promotes crack growth. • A nonlocal thermomechanical coupled modeling method for rolling contacts using peridynamic is proposed. • Fully coupled, ordinary state-based PD thermomechanical equations are derived. • An algorithm for rolling thermal contacts in PD is proposed based on the penalty method. • A typical 2D wheel–rail rolling contact model is established for a case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rotary sliding mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) provides high efficiency, a continuous and high output strategy for harvesting low-frequency mechanical energy. However, poor durability owing to material abrasion during sliding restricts its practical application. Here, a novel ferromagnetic metal particle-based triboelectric nanogenerator (FMP-TENG) is proposed, which couples the unlimited point contact rolling motion of particles instead of planar contact of film to improve durability of TENG. Besides, due to the extensively enhanced contact area by ferromagnetic metal particles, FMP-TENG improves its electric output, achieving a charge density of 103 μC m-2 and a peak power density of400 mW m-2 Hz-1. After 10 000 cycle running-in, FMP-TENG exhibits excellent durability, which retains 97% of the output charge for 110 000 cycles. In addition, a metal powder mass sensor based on FMP-TENG is also designed, which can effectively detect mass change in ferromagnetic metal powder in a dynamic mechanical platform. A novel strategy is proposed here to solve the problem of durability of sliding TENG in practical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, finite element method (FEM) is applied to investigate the effect of material defect orientation on subsurface crack initiation in rolling bearings. First, the history of stress intensity factors (SIFs) of a subsurface cubic material defect is calculated. SIFs calculation is conducted when it is parallel to the rolling surface of a bearing ring ( φ = 0 ∘ ) under a ball rolling on the ring. Then, the effect of defect orientation, varying from φ = 0 ∘ to φ = 30 , 45 and 60 ∘ , on the history of SIFs is investigated. It is deduced that changing the defect orientation results in a threefold increase in the equivalent SIF range compared to parallel orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Due to high speeds, heavy loads, large slide-to-roll ratios (SRR) and other variable operating conditions, some rolling bearings that have been working in harsh conditions may experience flash temperatures in the contact area, which may result in early damage like smearing and then affect service life. This study aims to investigate the flash temperature phenomenon of rolling bearings through theoretical and experimental analysis. Design/methodology/approach: A technology for measuring temperature distribution in rolling ball on disk contact under lubrication was developed. The test-rig can simulate the ball bearing contact. The effects of working conditions such as entrainment speed, load, SRR and lubricating oil viscosity on the flash temperature were investigated. Findings: The results of the theoretical calculation and experiments indicate that the parameters promoting the reduction of film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubrication are always related with the number of flash points, even film thickness reduced to mixed lubrication. The flash temperature is easier to happen in conditions of high SRR, heavy load, slow entrainment speed and low viscosity oil. Originality/value: This work conducts an experimental study on the flash temperature phenomenon, providing a test technology for bearing lubrication and failure investigation. Peer review: This author has opted into Transparent Peer Review available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-04-2023-0104 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An improved moment of load path model for rolling contact fatigue life prediction is proposed in this paper. First, the complex multiaxial stress variation of the subsurface materials under rolling contact conditions was analyzed by the finite element method. Next, the equivalent stress parameter was presented to characterize the complex stress state based on the improved moment of load path method. The key concept of the proposed method is building a new coordinate system for analyzing the load path of the complex multiaxial stress state. The efficiency of the proposed model was validated with different kinds of fatigue test results in the existing literature. The model results show a good agreement with the test data. Finally, the model was used to obtain the relationship of the Hertz stress versus fatigue life under rolling contact conditions according to the fatigue life data. Highlights: The proposed multiaxial life prediction model considers the hydrostatic stress.The correlation of the multiaxial test data is built using a defined stress parameter.Rolling contact fatigue life is predicted by the proposed multiaxial model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: When establishing a mathematical model to simulate solid mechanics, considering realistic geometries, special tools are needed to translate measured data, possibly with noise, into idealized geometrical entities. As an engineering application, wheel-rail contact interactions are fundamental in the dynamic modeling of railway vehicles. Many approaches used to solve the contact problem require a continuous parametric description of the geometries involved. However, measured wheel and rail profiles are often available as sets of discrete points. A reconstruction method is needed to transform discrete data into a continuous geometry. Design/methodology/approach: The authors present an approximation method based on optimization to solve the problem of fitting a set of points with an arc spline. It consists of an initial guess based on a curvature function estimated from the data, followed by a least-squares optimization to improve the approximation. The authors also present a segmentation scheme that allows the method to increment the number of segments of the spline, trying to keep it at a minimal value, to satisfy a given error tolerance. Findings: The paper provides a better understanding of arc splines and how they can be deformed. Examples with parametric curves and slightly noisy data from realistic wheel and rail profiles show that the approach is successful. Originality/value: The developed methods have theoretical value. Furthermore, they have practical value since the approximation approach is better suited to deal with the reconstruction of wheel/rail profiles than interpolation, which most methods use to some degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the phenomenon of bifurcation induced by double grazing in a piecewise-smooth oscillator with a play, which is a common occurrence in many non-smooth dynamical systems namely gear systems with approval, flange contact in wheel-rail systems, and spacecraft docking. The study is carried out using a composite Poincaré mapping with bilateral constraint, which extends the local normal form mapping of one discontinuity boundary to two discontinuity boundaries. The paper first derives the local discontinuous mapping at the unilateral grazing point using the normal form of discontinuity mapping and determines the type of 3/2 singularity of the zero-time discontinuous mapping with a continuous vector field at the discontinuity boundary. The composite Poincaré mapping is then used to obtain non-classical local bifurcations caused by double grazing, including bifurcation from period-1 motion to period-2 motion, bifurcation from period-1 motion to period-3 motion, and bifurcation from period-1 motion to chaos. The results of the study are consistent with those obtained via direct numerical simulations, demonstrating the efficacy of the composite Poincaré mapping of double grazing. The paper sheds light on the behavior of non-smooth dynamical systems and provides insights into the mechanisms underlying bifurcation induced by double grazing. The findings have potential applications in various fields including engineering, physics, and biology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The friction coefficient at the wheel–rail interface is crucial for the traction, braking and guidance of the railway vehicle. Real-time knowledge of the friction coefficient could reduce wheel–rail damages as well as improve the vehicle running performance. The friction coefficient is very difficult to be directly measured; hence an indirect measurement method using an unscented Kalman filter was proposed in this paper. A re-adhesion controller was also developed. The method was assessed in a Simpack-Simulink co-simulation environment. The friction coefficient estimation method was found to be accurate, and the re-adhesion controller improved the vehicle braking performance as well as reduced the wheel–rail damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In wheel-rail contact mechanics, there coexist different models characterised by their ability to reproduce the real phenomenon and the time associated with computing the solution. In simulation of the vehicle dynamics, the increase in the computational performance places researchers close to a horizon in which it is possible to implement the most realistic theories (Variational Theory or finite elements), although at present the use of these models is mainly limited to offline calculations, far from real-time simulation. In this context, this work presents a tangential contact theory that is an intermediate point between simplified models (unable to model non-Hertzian contact) and more realistic models (whose complexity triggers simulation times). The tangential contact model proposed is based on the FastSim algorithm, whose precision comes from the algorithm convergence to the results of an exact adhesion theory (i.e. when creepages tend to zero). The impossibility of considering Kalker's Linear Theory as an adjustment method when the hypotheses of the Hertzian model are not fulfilled leads to the adoption of the Kalker's steady-state CONTACT version in adhesion conditions. The calculations presented through the proposed algorithm provide errors for creep forces lower than 4% with computational times one order lower than the Variational Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most contact models addressing the solution of the tangential problem assume an elliptical shape of the contact patch which is derived from the Hertz theory. In particular, the linear theory of rolling contact developed by Kalker is based on this assumption. However, it is well known that in many practical cases the shape of the contact region formed between the rail and a railway wheel can be far from elliptic. Recently, the Simple Double-Elliptic Contact (SDEC) shape has been proposed as an approximation of a wide variety of non-elliptic patches. In this paper, a formulation of the linear theory of rolling contact for a SDEC shape is proposed. The coefficients of the original linear theory for elliptic patches are maintained and four new coefficients are introduced to consider the effect of non-ellipticity. The coefficients of the theory are derived numerically using software CONTACT. Then, an extension of FASTSIM for a SDEC region is introduced and the obtained creep force curves under various conditions are compared to existing formulations of FASTSIM, using results from software CONTACT as a reference. The comparisons show that the proposed model is as fast as FASTSIM and provides more accurate solutions than existing versions of FASTSIM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheel-rail impact, which arises from structural discontinuities and short-wave defects, becomes more serious with higher train speeds and larger axle loads. The large impact load can accelerate the deterioration of vehicle-track components and induce a high level of impact noise. This paper aims to better understand the characteristics of wheel-rail impact and redevelop corresponding mitigation measures. First, a well-validated vehicle-track vertical interaction model with a singular rail defect is built up considering nonlinear Hertz contact. Then, the simulated wheel-rail impact force is characterized in both the time and frequency domains with different running speeds and defect geometries employing continuous wavelet transform. The identified characteristic frequencies are correlated to the track resonance modes. Afterward, a parameter sensitivity analysis of railpads, ballast, roadbed, and suspensions is performed to obtain the mitigation measures of wheel-rail impact. The results show that the wheel-rail impact force can be characterized by four stages in the time domain, the quasi-static stage before the impact, the forced vibration, the free vibration, and the quasi-static stage after the impact, respectively. Four characteristic frequencies are identified in the wheel-rail impact response: f 1 at 45 Hz, f 2 at 100 Hz, f 3 at 260 Hz, and f 4 at 810 Hz. Among them, f 4 has the dominant vibration energy and is determined together by the pinned-pinned resonance mode and the defect excitation frequency. Characteristic frequencies f 1, f 2, and f 3 correspond to the ballast, sleeper, and rail resonance modes, respectively, which are independent of the defect geometry. The increase of railpad stiffness can effectively reduce the maximum wheel-rail impact force and thus the impact factor. Larger railpad stiffness and damping can significantly reduce the dominant vibration energy at about 810 Hz of f 4. This work can contribute to the optimization of vehicle-track parameters for a new design of more impact-resistant railways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance of ball bearings in the motion converter subassembly of an internally driven, single-speed, torque-split, twin configuration pericyclic transmission prototype is evaluated to extend the analytical knowledge base on this innovative transmission concept. A dynamic model of the transmission is developed with high-fidelity models of the installed rolling element bearings to determine their reactions. Attention is focused on the pair of ball bearings supporting the motion converter subassembly which are subjected to a complex combination of loads, including radial and axial forces, moments, carrier motion, and possibly internal preload. Then the influence of internal axial clearance and preload on the behavior of the rolling elements is analyzed with a fully dynamic ball bearing model. Provisions to consider the carrier motion and a robust integration algorithm for component orientations are presented. Finally, a microstructure-based fatigue life simulation of the critical bearing component is performed to demonstrate the effect of clearance/preload on bearing reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copper impregnated carbon/carbon composite (Cu-C/C composite) was fabricated for novel sliding collector material by weaving carbon fiber, heat treatment and Cu alloy impregnation. The effects of counterpart materials (Fe ball and Cu ball) on friction and wear behaviors were investigated and compared with the result of carbon contact strip used in high-speed railway. Morphology, chemical composition, phase and structure of wear surface and tribolayer were characterized to clarify tribological mechanisms. The results show that friction coefficient follows the order: Cu-C/C composite/Cu ball > carbon contact strip/Fe ball > Cu-C/C composite/Fe ball > carbon contact strip/Cu ball. The carbon crystalline of wear surface appears preferred orientation along the sliding orientation, which is benefit for boundary lubrication. When the counterpart material is Fe ball, Cu-C/C composite is superior to pure carbon strip in mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, wear resistance and friction performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, finite element method (FEM) is applied to investigate the effect of material defect orientation on subsurface crack initiation in rolling bearings. First, the history of stress intensity factors (SIFs) of a subsurface cubic material defect is calculated. SIFs calculation is conducted when it is parallel to the rolling surface of a bearing ring ( φ = 0 ∘ ) under a ball rolling on the ring. Then, the effect of defect orientation, varying from φ = 0 ∘ to φ = 30 , 45 and 60 ∘ , on the history of SIFs is investigated. It is deduced that changing the defect orientation results in a threefold increase in the equivalent SIF range compared to parallel orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a tire-soil rolling contact model based on the finite element method was established to determine the traction characteristics of the tire on the loose soil. Considering the soil parameters and tire parameters (loads, slip, inflation pressure and tread pattern), the influence of traction characteristics of the tire was obtained, taking tire sinkage and gross traction as evaluation indexes. The correctness of the tire-soil rolling contact model was verified by carrying out the soil bin-single wheel experiments. The results of the simulation and test showed that with the increase of load and sinkage of the tire, the gross traction tended to increase, thus enhancing the tire traction characteristics. With the increase of slip, the tire sinkage and gross traction increased, and the best tire traction characteristics were exhibited at a slip of 20%. Within the rated inflation pressure, as the inflation pressure increased, the tire sinkage decreased, the tire gross traction decreased and the traction characteristics of the tire were weakened. Under simulated working conditions, the traction characteristics of the tire first increased and then decreased with the increase of the number of tire lug pairs, and 15 tire lug pairs performed best. This paper presents a further study on the interaction between tires and soil under different influencing factors, and its findings provide an effective reference for predicting the traction performance assessment of tractor tires on working roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, the concept of utilizing two circular cam-track disks, of the same central angle, in combination with one circular roller is presented. The roller is restrained to move within a vertical groove, and at the same time it rotates with rolling-contact on both cam tracks. When the upper cam is fully travelled by the roller, the same occurs with the lower one, despite their different lengths. Therefore, during the rolling contact, the two cams always sweep the same central angle. The aforementioned configuration of the two circular arcs may be considered as a unit cell, which can be repeated an even number of times, and when folded forms a closed circular groove between two cam-track disks. For better understanding, a manufactured prototype and 3D CAD-models have been developed. The operation of this setup as a gearless automotive differential is demonstrated by performing two bench experiments, which are then explained by a simplified mechanical model. The latter focuses on the implementation of the principle of the inclined plane, in which an upper limit of the inclination angle is imposed in accordance with the coefficient of friction at the friction disks. Previous patents on gearless differentials are discussed and other possible applications in mechanical engineering are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban rail transit usually contains many small radius curved tracks, and wheel flange wear is prominent, which greatly reduces the service life and increases the maintenance and replacement costs of wheelsets. Two metro lines in Shanghai of China had suffered from severe flange wear since 2017, and the flange wear rate increased gradually over the next three years. This paper presents the understanding and treatment of severe flange wear through field measurement and numerical simulation. The investigation results indicated that the key factors causing severe flange wear were poor rail gauge face lubrication, the use of a low conicity wheel profile for trains running on the two metro lines containing many small radius curved tracks, and the lack of timely maintenance of low rail profiles. Three countermeasures were proposed to mitigate wheel flange wear, which were evaluated through wheel–rail matching analysis and wheel wear prediction. Then, two countermeasures, i.e. improving rail gauge face lubrication and employing the LM-30 wheel profile, were verified through field tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The CL60 steel wheels of subway vehicles operating on specific lines require frequent refurbishment due to rapid wear and tear. Considering this issue, MoS2-based and graphite-based solid lubricants are used to reduce the wear rate of subway wheels and extend their service life. Design/methodology/approach: Under laboratory conditions, the effect of MoS2-based and graphite-based solid lubricants on the friction and wear performance of subway wheels and rails was evaluated using a modified GPM-60 wear testing machine. Findings: Under laboratory conditions, MoS2-based solid lubricants have the best effect in reducing wheel/rail wear, compared to the control group without lubrication, at 2 × 105 revolutions, the total wheel-rail wear decreased by 95.07%. However, when three types of solid lubricants are used separately, the hardness evolution of the wheel-rail contact surface exhibits different characteristics. Practical implications: The research results provide important support for improving the lifespan of wheel and rail, extending the service cycle of wheel and rail, reducing the operating costs of subway systems, improving the safety of subway systems and providing wear reduction maintenance for other high wear mechanical components. Originality/value: The experiment was conducted through the design and modification of a GPM-60 testing machine for wear testing. The experiment simulated the wheel-rail contact situation under actual subway operation and evaluated the effects of three different solid lubricants, MoS2-based and graphite-based, on the wear performance and surface hardening evolution of subway wheel-rail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ball rolled over a shallow step will experience an increase in velocity along the direction perpendicular to the step. We work with shallow step heights relative to the radius of the ball so that the motion of the ball is easy to observe at all times, and so that the ball does not bounce when it encounters the lower platform. At the instant the ball contacts the lower platform, it has an I x i -direction linear velocity of I v i SB e sb cos I i and a I z i -direction angular velocity of I i = - I v i SB e sb / I R i . [Extracted from the article]

Surface initiated rolling contact fatigue (RCF) of gears and rolling bearings can lead to premature failure in mechanical transmission systems. The orientation of surface crack initiation closely depends on surface tractive force, while the mechanism leading to this dependence is still obscure. In this work, a numerical model is proposed to investigate the effect of friction on surface crack initiation in RCF. An inhomogeneous contact solver based on semi‐analytical method (SAM) is developed by combining the damaged‐coupled constitutive relation and the Eshelby's equivalent inclusion method. The damage accumulation and concurrent degradation of material properties are modeled with continuum damage mechanics (CDM). The effect of surface tractive force on the orientation of surface crack initiation is simulated and analyzed. Results indicate that the progressive evolution of damage under the cyclic loading is accompanied by the stress variation around the damaged area. The damaged area increases, and the crack initiation life decreases with an increasing coefficient of friction. Highlights: A new damage evolution model incorporating an inhomogeneous contact solver is developed.The possible causes of the orientation of surface crack affected by friction traction are analyzed.The simulated results of damage evolution and stress variation agree well with open literatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work rolls of CVC rolling mill usually adopt S-shaped roll profile curve in the rolling process of plate, which changes the contact between the rolls and causes the contact pressure distribution between the rolls to be uneven. The peak of the contact pressure between the rolls appears at the end of the roll, which leads to peeling or "meat loss" at the end of the roll and poor plate crown control effect. To solve those problems, a CVC rolling mill backup roll profile curve with parabolic chamfer was proposed, and the fusion model of plate crown based on mechanism and data-driven models was developed. Combining the parameters of the CVC roll profile curve, the theoretical calculation formula of the backup roll chamfering was deduced. According to the actual data of the plate rolling mill, the parameters of different types of backup roll chamfering were determined, and the distribution of contact pressure between the rolls under different backup roll chamfering was calculated and analyzed by finite element model. Based on the new parabolic chamfer curve of backup roll, the rolling force setting model based on Extreme Learning Machine (ELM) and roll wear model based on Genetic Algorithm Artificial Neural Network (GA-ANN) were constructed by using the nonlinear fitting ability of machine learning algorithm. Then, the predicted results of rolling force and roll wear were taken as the input variables of plate crown prediction. At the same time, the roll system deformation model and roll bending force model based on mechanism model were introduced as inputs to construct the plate crown Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model based on mechanism and data-driven fusion. The simulation results show that the parabolic chamfer can significantly reduce the pressure between the backup rolls. When the rolled strip width is 2000 mm, 2400 mm, and 2800 mm, the parabolic chamfer can reduce the peak contact stress between the rolls by 8.6% and 10.8%. When the rolling bending force is 1600kN, 2100kN, and 2600kN, the parabolic chamfer can reduce the peak contact stress between the rolls by 8.6%, 8.9%, and 9.1%. The hit ratio of plate crown increased from 90.4% to 96.5%, and the product degradation rate caused by the shape problem decreased by 35.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The paper aims to find the correlation between the microparameters and the macroparameters of the soil. The study aims to calibrate the macroscale and microscale parameters of rolling resistance contact models to successfully apply the discrete element method to do some research of the geotechnical problem. Design/methodology/approach: The paper opted for an exploratory study using the PFC3D to simulate the triaxial tests that include more than 50 cases and the coupling analysis method, which considering several effect of various factors. Findings: The paper provides a quantitative relationship between the macroparameters and microparameters of the rolling resistance linear model and a method for fast calibration of macroscopic parameters is proposed and verified by a triaxial test example. Originality/value: This paper provides the quantitative relationship of micro and macroparameters in the rolling resistance linear model by studying a single factor and considering the coupling effect of various factors and a fast method for the calibration of microparameters based on the rolling resistance linear model is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]