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This book chapter discusses cockroaches. Ovoviviparous cockroaches form an egg capsule externally from the body but then withdraw it into a brood sac, females provide water until the eggs hatch, and the nymphs emerge from the female's body. For viviparous cockroaches, the ootheca is withdrawn into the female's body, the eggs develop in the brood sac, and eggs are fed nutrients by the female until the birth of the nymphs. They can cause psychopathology where the thought or sight of cockroaches, or contact with surfaces where cockroaches have been, can affect a person's perception of their own well-being. There are cockroaches that live in temperate and tropical forests, grasslands, salt marshes, aquatic habitats, caves, and deserts. In structures, they have been found feeding on soap, glue and wire insulation, but they usually feed on human food scraps. Cockroach nymphs and adults are primarily scavengers living on feces, decaying leaves and wood, as well as dead animals. Most of these novel developments in reproduction were to protect eggs from parasitoids and predators. The development of the cockroach is hemimetabolous, meaning that there is an egg, nymphal, and adult stage. The eggs of cockroaches are usually deposited in an egg capsule called an ootheca. The German cockroach is the most difficult cockroach to control worldwide due to its resistance to many insecticides. Sanitation and cultural control involve the removal of food, water, and harborage that cockroaches rely on in order to survive. Cockroaches need food, water, and harborage to survive and thrive. As a result, cockroach Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the best method of protecting people and their properties from cockroaches.

This chapter provides key questions on handling of pesticides used for the urban pest management industry. These pesticides are selective in their toxicity to affect the survival, development, and reproduction of the target pest species, and they have greater adverse effects on pests than on humans and other non-target species. However, applicators should not underestimate the effects of pesticide exposure when they use improper mixing, application, and safety equipment, and do not take precautions to protect themselves. Pesticide safety awareness can minimize the potential adverse effects of excessive exposure on the job.

Understanding short-range cues (e.g., host odorants, heat, moisture) of host-seeking female Aedes aegypti L. is very important for attempts to reduce mosquito bites, to complement current control strategies, and to develop potential spatial repellents. We investigated behavior under semi-field conditions utilizing a new portable uni-port taxis box with a caged chicken host. The combined influences of airflow regimes (0, 1.5, 3, 5, and 6 m/s), distance from host odor (10, 50, 100 cm), host-odor confinement (partial confinement/unconfined), and foraging periodicity (day/evening) were studied. Statistical regression analysis was used to delineate the significant factors that predict upwind flight behavior and short-range source location. Almost 15% of host-seeking Ae. aegypti were activated by an unconfined chicken odor in still air. This was double the number of attracted mosquitoes to confined host odor. The maximum behavioral response was reported with airflow of 5 m/s during daytime (76.7% ± 2.85) at a distance of 10 (70.7% ± 2.47) and 50 cm (56.7% ± 8.88). However, airflow of 6 m/s activated host-seeking orientation during evening assays. The host-seeking response between indoor and outdoor experiments was not significantly different and demonstrated the reliability of the portable taxis box in evaluating mosquito short-range behavioral response toward hosts.

Musca domestica, Drosophila melanogaster and Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Muscidae, Drosophilidae, and Phoridae, respectively) are common urban pest flies. Potential control of these adult fly species using an attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) system was evaluated in the laboratory. ATSB, consisting of a combination of mango fruit syrup (as bait) and acetamiprid (as toxic agent), was evaluated and compared with a commercially available fly bait (EndZone™ Insecticide sticker, FMC Corp., USA) containing acetamiprid. Mango syrup without toxicant (ASB) served as the negative control. The ASB + acetamiprid bait was the most effective control mixture based on initial knockdown within 10 min for house flies and 200 min for phorids. The combination produced a higher percentage of mortality in house flies and phorids, respectively, than in fruit flies; however, there was no significant difference between the bait formulations as indicated by the mean mortality of house flies and phorids. Significant differences in Drosophila mean mortality were demonstrated between the ATSB combinations. These findings suggested a fruit-based ASB + acetamiprid system could be used as a cost-effective, alternative for adult fly control. Keywords: Acetamiprid, Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB), Drosophila melanogaster, Megaselia scalaris, Musca domestica

Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) are known to flourish in a variety of natural and residential habitats and are competent vectors of at least 22 different arboviruses, including dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. Their global distribution, anthropophilic nature, and vector competency make them species of interest for control. A novel durable dual-action lethal ovitrap (DDALO) with combined larviciding and adulticiding effects, as well as a slow-release polymer (isobutyl methacrylate), was designed to target Ae. aegypti. The use of the DDALO resulted in high adult mosquito mortality (~95-100%) in no-choice laboratory cage studies targeting gravid females and successfully prevented all deposited eggs from hatching. Aging of the traps caused some loss in activity over time, but they still caused adult mortality (~50%) and continued to prevent successful hatching of eggs for 6 mo. Oviposition preference studies resulted in ~4.5 times as many larvae developing in untreated DDALOs compared with the other containers combined. Small-cage multigenerational studies resulted in significantly lower populations of adult mosquitoes in cages containing treated DDALOs after 4 wk. Successful laboratory studies show that the DDALO appears to be a promising tool that could be used for controlling wild vector populations of Ae. aegypti in combination with other mosquito control practices.

A comparison of trail-following movement parameters of six major urban pest ants, Nylanderia fulva (Forel) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Pheidole megacephala, Linepithema humile (Mayr), Solenopsis invicta Buren, Paratrechina longicornis (Forel), and Technomyrmex albipes (Smith) demonstrated several differences in velocity of movement, amplitude of the deviations from a marked trail, percent fidelity to the trail, number of curves per unit of trail, and trail-following accuracy. Paratrechina longicornis and N. fulva had the largest deviations from the marked trails and moved three times faster (25&ndash, 30 mm/s) along the trail than the slowest ant, S. invicta (&lt, 10 mm/s), with other ants following between these extremes. Species differences in relation to going toward or returning from food were observed in a few cases, especially with Pa. longicornis for which velocity, amplitude, and trail fidelity differed between the foraging and return trails. Quantification of ant trail-following movement parameters can be useful in understanding the mechanics of ant movement and may be important in testing specific strategies and products that disrupt trail-following behavior.

Aedes aegypti were exposed to water treated with mosquitocidal chips containing the insecticide pyriproxyfen in a polymer formulation. Chips were tested under different conditions, different water volumes, in containers made of different material, and in water with different levels of organic matter. Treated chips caused 100% mortality of Ae. aegypti during their pupal stage independent of size or type of container, and the mount of organic matter contained in the water to which the mosquito larvae were exposed. When mosquitocidal chips were used in &gt, 25% of the oviposition containers within their cages, there was a significant control of the mosquito populations. Mosquitocidal chips worked in different environments, caused significant mosquito population decreases, and were effective in controlling Ae. aegypti.

Revised! ENY-227, a 7-page illustrated fact sheet by P. G. Koehler and Jeff Hertz, describes these blood-sucking insects, their life cycles, control methods. Includes new techniques for bed bug control and a table of insecticides labeled for bed bug control. Published by the UF Department of Entomology and Nematology, November 2008.

Little evidence has been presented on the usefulness of sticky traps for monitoring bed bugs, Cimex lectularius. We examined how the surface roughness around the adhesive of a sticky trap affects both bed bug behavior and adhesive entrapment. In the first assay, bed bugs were placed onto acetate paper discs with different roughness averages (Ra). Each disc was surrounded by sticky trap adhesive and number of captured bed bugs were recorded. The second assay was set up similarly to the first assay except that the outer portion of the acetate disc had a different Ra than the center. In the third assay, bed bugs were placed into circular acetate arenas where they were surrounded by different Ra treatments. The number of times the bed bugs contacted the Ra treatment but did not cross onto the treatment was recorded. Results of these assays showed that as the acetate surfaces got smoother (lower Ra), bed bugs were more likely to get trapped in sticky trap adhesives but also less likely to travel across the smoother surfaces they encountered. A sticky trap design with a smooth plastic film around the adhesive was tested in the field to see if it could capture bed bugs in apartments with known bed bug activity. This trap was not only able to capture bed bugs but was also able to detect unknown German cockroach, Blattela germanica, infestations. Sticky trap designs with smooth surfaces around an adhesive could be used to monitor not only bed bugs but also German cockroaches.

Mosquitoes continue to be a major threat to global health, and the ability to reliably monitor, catch, and kill mosquitoes via passive traps is of great importance. Global, low-cost, and easy-to-use outdoor devices are needed to augment existing efforts in mosquito control that combat the spread of disease, such as Zika. Thus, we have developed a modular, portable, non-powered (passive), self-contained, and field-deployable device suitable for releasing volatiles with a wide range of applications such as attracting, repelling, and killing mosquitoes. This unique device relies on a novel nested wick and two-reservoir design that achieves a constant release of volatiles over several hundred hours. Devices loaded with one of either two compounds, geraniol or 1-methylpiperazine (MP), were tested in a controlled environment (32 &deg, C and 70% relative humidity), and both compounds achieved a constant release from our devices at a rate of 2.4 mg/h and 47 mg/h, respectively. The liquid payload can be volatile attractants or repellants as well as mosquitocide-containing feeding solutions for capture and surveillance. This low-cost device can be utilized for both civilian and military mosquito control purposes, but it will be particularly important for protecting those in economically repressed environments, such as sub-Saharan Africa and Central and South America.

Bed bugs as pests of public health importance recently experienced a resurgence in populations throughout the U.S. and other countries. Consequently, recent research efforts have focused on improving understanding of bed bug physiology and behaviour to improve management. While few studies have investigated the visual capabilities of bed bugs, the present study focused specifically on eye morphology and spectral sensitivity. A 3-D imaging technique was used to document bed bug eye morphology from the first instar through adult and revealed morphological characteristics that differentiate the common bed bug from the tropical bed bug as well as sex-specific differences. Electrophysiological measurements were used to evaluate the spectral sensitivity of adult bed bugs. Male bed bugs were more responsive than females at some wavelengths. Electrophysiological studies provided evidence for at least one photoreceptor with a spectral sensitivity curve peak in the green (λmax 520 nm) region of the spectrum. The broadened long wavelength portion of the spectral sensitivity curve may potentially indicate another photoreceptor in the yellow-green (λmax 550 nm) portion of the spectrum or screening pigments. Understanding more about bed bug visual biology is vital for designing traps, which are an important component of integrated bed bug management.

As concerns about bed bug sightings began to increase and schools began to report bed bug introductions, an expert group convened by the Environmental Protection Agency recommended development of curricula to teach young students about bed bug biology and management. The Bed Bugs and Book Bags curriculum is our response to this recommendation. This third- through fifth-grade curriculum was developed using a six-step process, and has been implemented by health educators, teachers, and the pest management industry within and outside of the United States. The curriculum consists of 10 lessons correlated with state health educational standards and is specifically designed to educate teachers and students about bed bugs. In pilot testing of various groups including teachers, students, custodial staff at rescue missions, and pest management professionals, teacher and student groups had the highest increase in knowledge gain after being introduced to the curriculum. The curriculum is available online at http://duval.ifas.uf.edu/Bed_Bugs.shtml. Based on self-reporting, it has a potential impact of reaching approximately 40,000 people across the United States, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. The Bed Bugs and Book Bags curriculum placed first as a learning module with the Florida Association for …

Laboratory and field trials were performed to evaluate the attractiveness and efficacy of commercial baits (cyantraniliprole, methomyl + (Z)-9-tricosene, dinotefuran + (Z)-9-tricosene, imidacloprid granular + (Z)-9-tricosene, and imidacloprid liquid + (Z)-9-tricosene). In choice tests, flies were most attracted to cyantraniliprole bait &gt, dinotefuran + (Z)-9 &gt, methomyl + (Z)-9 bait &gt, imidacloprid granular + (Z)-9 bait &gt, imidacloprid liquid + (Z)-9 bait. Significant degradation in bait efficacy was observed after two weeks of aging excluding imidacloprid granular, which began to degrade in field conditions after one week. Cyantraniliprole, the new fly bait active ingredient in Zyrox®, had the longest time to knockdown in the laboratory tests, but on susceptible flies, achieved 95%–100% knockdown within an hour of exposure. Zyrox® was resistant to weathering for a week, and was more attractive to flies in the field when compared to methomyl + (Z)-9 bait.

The consistent sporadic transmission of West Nile Virus (WNV) in the city of New Orleans justifies the need for distribution risk maps highlighting human risk of mosquito bites. We modeled the influence of biophysical and socioeconomic metrics on the spatio-temporal distributions of presence/vector-host contact (VHC) ratios of WNV vector, Culex quinquefasciatus, within their flight range. Biophysical and socioeconomic data were extracted within 5-km buffer radii around sampling localities of gravid female Culex quinquefasciatus. The spatio-temporal correlations between VHC data and 33 variables, including climate, land use-land cover (LULC), socioeconomic, and land surface terrain were analyzed using stepwise linear regression models (RM). Using MaxEnt, we developed a distribution model using the correlated predicting variables. Only 12 factors showed significant correlations with spatial distribution of VHC ratios (R2 = 81.62, p < 0.01). Non-forested wetland (NFWL), tree density (TD) and residential-urban (RU) settings demonstrated the strongest relationship. The VHC ratios showed monthly environmental resilience in terms of number and type of influential factors. The highest prediction power of RU and other urban and built up land (OUBL), was demonstrated during May–August. This association was positively correlated with the onset of the mosquito WNV infection rate during June. These findings were confirmed by the Jackknife analysis in MaxEnt and independently collected field validation points. The spatial and temporal correlations of VHC ratios and their response to the predicting variables are discussed.

Bait-trapping is a useful approach for monitoring fly population dynamics, and it is an effective tool for physical control of pest species. The aim of this study was to test a newly developed semi-automatic funnel fly trap with some modifications of the former prototype fly trap to study medically important fly population density. The efficacy of the semi-automatic funnel trap was assessed by field sampling during July 2013-June 2014 using 1-day tainted beef offal as bait. The modified semi-automatic funnel traps were able to capture a total of 151,141 adult flies, belonging to the families: Calliphoridae (n=147,248; 97.4%), Muscidae (n=3,124; 2.1%) and Sarcophagidae (n=769; 0.5%), which are the medically important fly species. Among the total of 35 species collected, Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae) (n=88,273; 59.95%), Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) (n=1,324; 42.38%) and Boettcherisca peregrina (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) (n=68; 33.01%) were the predominant species of each family. High number of flies was captured in forest area, representing 42.47% (n=64,197) of total specimens. Female flies were trapped more than male with total sex ratio of 0.37 male/female. Flies were trapped throughout the year with peak population in summer. Peak activity was recorded in the afternoon (12.00-18.00h). In summary, the modified semi-automatic funnel fly trap can be used for field collection of the adult fly. By setting the timer, population dynamics, diversity, and periodic activity of adult flies were determined.

Mosquito abatement programs contend with mosquito-borne diseases, insecticidal resistance, and environmental impacts to non-target organisms. However, chemical resources are limited to a few chemical classes with similar modes of action, which has led to insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. To develop a new tool for mosquito abatement programs that control mosquitoes while combating the issues of insecticidal resistance, and has low impacts of non-target organisms, novel methods of mosquito control, such as attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSBs), are being developed. Whereas insect baiting to dissuade a behavior, or induce mortality, is not a novel concept, as it was first introduced in writings from 77 AD, mosquito baiting through toxic sugar baits (TSBs) had been quickly developing over the last 60 years. This review addresses the current body of research of ATSB by providing an overview of active ingredients (toxins) include in TSBs, attractants combined in ATSB, lethal effects on mosquito adults and larvae, impact on non-target insects, and prospects for the use of ATSB.

Background Dual attractant toxic sugar baits (D-ATSB) containing two host kairomones, L-lactic (LA) and 1-octen-3-ol (O), and fruit-based attractants were evaluated through olfactory, consumption and mortality, and semi-field experiments to determine if host kairomones could first, enhance attraction of a fruit-based (attractant) toxic sugar bait (ATSB), and second, increase the efficacy of a fruit based attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB). Methods Four combinations of LA and O were incorporated into the ATSB and evaluated in an olfactometer to determine if these combinations could enhance attraction of Aedes aegypti (L.) to the bait. Ae. albopictus (Skuse) and Ae. aegypti were used to determine bait consumption through excrement droplet counts and percent mortality, of the most attractive D-ATSB (1% LA and 1% O) from the olfactory study. Semi-field evaluations were conducted in screened portable field cages to determine if the D-ATSB applied to non-flowering plants controlled more mosquitoes than the fruit-based ATSB, and ASB. Mosquitoes were exposed to D-ATSB and the two controls for 48 h and collected with BGS traps. The catch rates of the BGS traps were compared to determine efficacy of the D-ATSB. Results During olfactometer evaluations of D-ATSB, Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were more attracted to 1% LA and 1% O compared to the fruit-based toxic sugar bait alone. Both species of mosquito consumed more fruit-based non-toxic bait (ASB) and ATSB than the D-ATSB. For both species, percent mortality bioassays indicated D-ATSB controlled mosquitoes, as compared to non-toxic control, but not more than the fruit based ATSB. Semi-field evaluations, BioGents sentinel traps at 48 h confirmed that ATSB (positive control) controlled Ae. albopictus, but there was no statistical difference between ASB (negative control) and the D-ATSB. No differences were observed between the mosquitoes caught in any of the experimental formulations for Ae. aegypti. Conclusions L-lactic (1%) and 1-octen-3-ol (1%) added to a fruit-based sugar bait increased attraction of Ae. aegypti and may have future implications in mosquito trapping devices. The addition of the host kairomones did not enhance the consumption and efficacy of the ATSB in laboratory or semi-field evaluations for both mosquito species. We attribute to the absence of other host cues leading to lack of alighting onto bait surfaces to imbibe the toxic bait, as well as a possible decrease in palatability of the bait caused by the addition of the host kairomones.

The geographic expansion and development rate of flies are climate-induced. Their importance as potential vectors of diseases and as forensic tools depends on where flies can occur in large numbers and the suitable habitats for their distribution. This chapter examines the effects of environmental (including temperature, precipitation, surface water, and vegetation) and host factors on the survival, development, distribution/range, and ability to transmit disease of flies. It presents new georeferenced data for temperature-related development of flies, and discusses current and future prediction scenarios for fly distribution at times of natural disasters, such as tornadoes or tsunamis in 2 different temperature-gradient areas in USA (New York City, New York, and Miami-Dade County, Florida).

Various reasons have prevented the microbial control of structural pests from reaching the commercial development and practical use achieved with agricultural pests. Microbial products have not been very successful on the market for the control of cockroaches throughout the world. The control of ants has focused on classical biological control agents used outdoors. Structural termite control has benefited little from work in agricultural systems, and doubts persist as to whether microbial control in structures can be successful. The recent resurgence of bed bugs has sparked an interest in the microbial control of these insects, but no commercial products are yet available. Without significant progress in the microbial control of the major structural pests, it is very unlikely that entomopathogens will become commercially available for the control of other structural pests. Due to the difficulties in fitting microbial products into structural pest management, monetary and time investments into the search and implementation of microbial control may lead to practical applications.

Effective control of Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), a blow fly species of medical and forensic importance, requires information on seasonal prevalence and bionomics. Therefore, daily and seasonal activity patterns of C. rufifacies were studied in 3 locations representing different microhabitats (palm plantation, forested area, longan orchard) in a suburban area of Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand. Investigations were conducted hourly for 24 h using a semi-automatic trap baited with 1-d-old beef offal (300 g). Collections were carried out twice per mo from Jul 2013 to Jun 2014. A total of 55,966 adult C. rufifacies were collected, with 52.4% of individuals trapped in the forested area. Chrysomya rufifacie s was present in collections throughout the yr with peak abundance in summer. This species was active during the d with peak activity in late afternoon (3:00 to 6:00 PM). Fly abundance in traps was positively correlated with temperature (r = 0.391; P < 0.001) but negatively correlated with relative humidity (r = −0.388; P < 0.001). Female flies were more abundant in collections (0.26 male per female sex ratio), with 80% of individuals being nongravid. The baseline information provided by our study suggests that C. rufifacies is well-adapted to variable climatic conditions present in northern Thailand, specifically suburban Chiang Mai Province. Resumen El control efectivo de Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), una especie de mosca califorida de importancia medica y forense, requiere informacion sobre la prevalencia estacional y bionomica. Por lo tanto, se estudiaron los patrones de actividad diaria y estacional de C. rufifacies en tres lugares que representan diferentes microhabitats (plantaciones de palma, area boscosa, huerto de ojo de dragon) en un area suburbana de la provincia de Chiang Mai, al norte de Tailandia. Se realizaron las investigaciones cada hora durante 24 h utilizando una trampa semiautomatica cebada con despojos de carne de 1 dia de edad (300 g). Se hicieron las recolecciones dos veces al mes entre jul del 2013 y jun del 2014. Se recolecto un total de 55,966 adultos de C. rufifacies , con el 52,4% de los individuos atrapados en el area boscosa. Chrysomya rufifacies estuvo presente en colecciones a lo largo del ano con una abundancia maxima en el verano. Esta especie estuvo activa durante el dia con una actividad maxima al final de la tarde (3:00 to 6:00 PM). La abundancia de moscas en las trampas se correlaciono positivamente con la temperatura (r = 0.391, P < 0.001) pero se correlaciono negativamente con la humedad relativa (r = -0.388, P < 0.001). Las moscas hembra fueron mas abundantes en las colecciones (proporcion sexual machos/hembras de 0,26) con un 80% de individuos no gravidos. La informacion de referencia proporcionada por nuestro studio sugiere que C. rufifacies esta bien adaptada a las condiciones climaticas variables presentes en el norte de Tailandia, especificamente en la provincial suburbana de Chiang Mai. View this article in BioOne

Behavioral bioassays were conducted to determine whether bed bug adults and nymphs prefer specific colored harborages. Two-choice and seven-choice behavioral color assays indicate that red (28.5%) and black (23.4%) harborages are optimal harborage choices for bed bugs. Yellow and green harborages appear to repel bed bugs. Harborage color preferences change according to gender, nutritional status, aggregation, and life stage. Female bed bugs prefer harborages with shorter wavelengths (lilac—14.5% and violet—11.5%) compared to males, whereas males prefer harborages with longer wavelengths (red—37.5% and black—32%) compared with females. The preference for orange and violet harborages is stronger when bed bugs are fed as opposed to when they are starved. Lone bed bugs (30%) prefer to be in black harborages while red harborages appear to be the optimum harborage color for bed bugs in more natural mixed aggregations (35.5%). Bed bug nymphs preferred different colored harborages at each stage of development, which is indicative of their developing eye structures and pigments. First instars showed no significant preference for any colored harborage soon after hatching. However, by the fifth instar, 27.5% of nymphs significantly preferred red and black harborages (which was a similar preference to adult bed bugs). The proportion of oviposited eggs was significantly greater under blue, red, and black harborages compared to other colored harborages tested. The use of visual cues such as specific colors offers great potential for improving bed bug monitoring tools by increasing trap captures.

To date, few studies have evaluated chitin synthesis inhibitors against bed bugs, although they would provide an alternative mode of action to circumvent insecticide resistance. Acute and sublethal effects of lufenuron were evaluated against two strains of the common bed bug. Combined acute and sublethal effects were used to calculate effective doses. The dose that was effective against 50% of Harlan strain bed bugs was 0.0081% (w/v), and was much higher against Bradenton strain bed bugs (1.11% w/v). Sublethal doses were chosen to determine the effect that leg abnormalities had on pulling force. Both Harlan and Bradenton strain bed bugs had significantly lower locomotion ability (p < 0.0001) following topical application of lufenuron. The observed sublethal effects that limit locomotion could prevent bed bugs from moving within a domicile and taking a blood meal, subsequently reducing a bed bug population over time.