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El objetivo de este estudio es intentar una refutacion de los argumentos que ultimamente ha esgrimido parte de la doctrina nacional para sustentar la integracion de la aestimatio rei en la indemnizacion de perjuicios. Ademas de revisar el estado de la discusion y explicar el rol decidor que al respecto desempena el articulo 1521 del Codigo Civil, se ponen en cuestion la pretendida funcion resarcitoria del cumplimiento por equivalencia, la afirmacion de que la destruccion de la especie o cuerpo cierto por causa imputable al deudor comporta un dano intrinseco y la supuesta inconveniencia de la existencia de un regimen diferenciado. The objective in this paper is to tent to refute the arguments that have been said lately by part of the national doctrine to support the integration of the aestimatio rei in the damages compensation. Also, in addition to reviewing the state of the discussion and explaining the decision-making role that article 1521 of the Civil Code plays in this regard, it is questioned the compensatory function of monetary amount in lieu of specific performance, the claim that the destruction of the item by cause attributable to the debtor entails intrinsic damage and the so-called inconvenience of the existence of a differentiated regime.

Introduction Studies demonstrate that financial incentive programs increase smoking cessation. However, there is little guidance on which incentive magnitudes will ensure optimal enrollment and motivation levels. This study investigates current smokers’ perceptions of varying incentive magnitudes to identify whether there is evidence for optimal amount(s) and whether perceptions differ by income group. Methods Studies 1 (N = 56) and 2 (N = 147) were conducted online via Prolific.co. Current smokers were randomly shown multiple hypothetical incentive programs that differed only in the incentive amount offered. For each program, smokers rated its appeal and their likelihood of enrolling and predicted their motivation to quit if enrolled. Growth models were used to investigate the relationship between perspectives and the incentive amount. Results An increasing quadratic trend in smokers’ perceptions of programs as the incentive amount increased was identified. Incentive amounts beyond approximately £50–75 per week (£500–£750 total) did not significantly alter perceptions of programs. In Study 2, high-income smokers found programs significantly less appealing and motivating than low-income smokers, although no significant between-group differences were observed in the likelihood of enrollment. No significant differences were observed between low- and middle-income smokers. Conclusions Increasing the incentive amount increased smoker’s perceptions of programs. This relationship was curvilinear, meaning there may be a point beyond which further increasing the amount will not improve enrollment or motivation levels. Incentives appear equally appealing to low- and middle-income smokers; the population among whom smoking is most prevalent. Future research could explore other elements of program design and whether findings hold under real-world conditions. Implications While acknowledging that they work, policymakers frequently request information about the monetary amount needed for incentive programs to be effective, and if this differs by income level. We investigated these questions using smokers’ perceptions of hypothetical cessation programs that differed in the amount offered. An increasing quadratic trend in perceptions of programs by the amount and potential cut points was observed, suggesting a point may exist beyond which increasing the incentive will not improve perceptions of programs or enrollment levels. High-income smokers may not perceive incentives to be as appealing as other income groups, but appear equally willing to enroll.

In comparison to other health economists' methods for benefit calculation, Contingent valuation (CV) was argued to theoretical benefits. However, in practice, as applicable to healthcare concerns, it seems that methodology has not analyzed benefits, as its impact on national decision making in medical sector has still not been exercised. This is not due to continued thriving methodological lack study in this field. It is product, somewhat unorganized and non-systematic, of such operations. To encourage analysts to reach beyond assessment of cost-effectiveness of offering a given degree of environmental products, there needs to be few ways of estimating benefit of supplying various degree of services compared to their costs. While other measures are feasible, such units are expressed more naturally in money terms. The major goal of pharmaceuticals is to enhance the economic value of pharmacy services. The contingent valuation (CV) provides a way to value importance of pharma services. The Contingent Valuation method provides benefit in terms of individual monetary amount provided by both product and services. The present paper provides a brief review about CV method, importance in raising economic value of pharmacy along with its implications. The review also provides some guidelines i.e. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) that should be followed in order to raise the economic value.

We study how the diffusion of being pivotal affects immoral outcomes. In a first set of experiments, subjects decide about agreeing to kill mice and receiving money versus objecting to kill mice and foregoing the monetary amount. In a baseline condition, subjects decide individually about the life of one mouse. In the main treatment, subjects are organized into groups of eight and decide simultaneously. Eight mice are killed if at least one subject supports the killing. The fraction of subjects agreeing to kill is significantly higher in the main condition compared to the baseline condition. In the second set of experiments, we run the same baseline and main conditions but use a charity context and additionally study sequential decisions. We replicate our main finding from the mouse paradigm and additionally show that in the sequential treatment, prosocial behavior is even less pronounced. We further show that the observed effects increase with experience, i.e., when we repeat the experiment for a second time. Finally, we report evidence on beliefs, elicited in our main experiments but also from a treatment of noninvolved observers, and show that beliefs about being pivotal are a main driver of our results.

This article is a review of formula funding. It addresses two basic questions: 1) What formula funding schemes for schools exist and how they are used; and 2) How formula funding methods for schools meet the standards. Formula funding for schools, as opposed to administrative funding – relies on a mathematical formula, contains a number of variables (e.g., number of students), each of which has a monetary amount tied to it to determine school budgets. There are two main groups of variables in such formulas: 1) based on number of students and grade level success; and 2) based on need. The effectiveness of formula funding compared to alternative funding regimes depends on the details of the formula and on educational policy. Formula funding systems typically promote transparency and accountability at low administrative costs, and when combined with appropriate additional policy tools, they can also promote equity and efficiency. There are several debates going on right now: first, there is a tradeoff between transparency/ease and local sensitivity/complexity. Second, determining how much it costs to teach to a certain standard is problematic and controversial. The main reason for this is that the relationship between education costs and student achievement is largely unknown, and the impact identified is relatively small. Because of the proliferation of formula funding, an extensive academic literature has developed over the past two decades. While much of the literature is specific to national contexts and contributes to the domestic issues of specific countries, there are a small number of studies for general application. The latter, however, remain largely descriptive and only cover evaluation issues very briefly or address specific issues such as corruption. As a consequence, there is very little comparative work on how formula financing methods are evaluated according to different standards. For the most part, the issue has been studied only in EU member states. Much attention is given to countries with extensive experience in evaluating formula finance regimes, such as the US, the UK, Australia, and New Zealand. But unfortunately, developing countries do not take up the issue of the study, which provides difficulties in their educational development.

BackgroundThere is a high prevalence of financial conflicts of interest (COI) between physicians and industry.ObjectivesTo conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis examining the completeness of self-reported financial COI disclosures by physicians, and identify factors associated with non-disclosure.Data sourcesMEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO were searched for eligible studies up to April 2020 and supplemented with material identified in the references and citing articles.Data extraction and synthesisData were independently abstracted by two authors. Data synthesis was performed via systematic review of eligible studies and random-effects meta-analysis.Main outcomes and measuresThe proportion of discrepancies between physician self-reported disclosures and objective payment data was the main outcome. The proportion of discrepant funds and factors associated with non-disclosure were also examined.Results40 studies were included. The pooled proportion of COI discrepancies at the article level was 81% (range: 54%–98%; 95% CI 72% to 89%), 79% at the payment level (range: 71%–89%; 95% CI 67% to 89%), 93% at the authorship level (range: 71%–100%; 95% CI 79% to 100%) and 66% at the author level (range: 8%–99%; 95% CI 48% to 78%). The proportion of funds discrepant was 33% (range: 2%–77%; 95% CI 12% to 58%). There was high heterogeneity between studies across all five analyses (I2=94%–99%). Most undisclosed COI were related to food and beverage, or travel and lodging. While the most common explanation for failure to disclose was perceived irrelevance, a median of 45% of non-disclosed payments were directly or indirectly related to the work. A smaller monetary amount was the most common factor associated with nondisclosure.ConclusionsPhysician self-reports of financial COI are highly discrepant with objective data sources reporting payments from industry. Stronger policies are required to reduce reliance on physician self-reporting of financial COI and address non-compliance.

This paper reports the results of an experiment designed to compare two mechanisms that provide solutions to King Solomon's Dilemma. One of them is proposed by Moore (1992) and the other by Perry and Reny (1999). The objective of each mechanism is to allocate a single unit of an indivisible private good to the player with the highest reservation value at zero cost to her. Implemented in an environment with complete information Moore's mechanism, compared with Perry and Reny's mechanism, shows a lower rate of wasteful use of resources, but we could not find evidence that this mechanism has a better rate in allocating the object to the right player. The use of either the ascending clock or the slow ascending clock improves the performance of Perry and Reny's mechanism in allocating the object to the right player at zero cost in both informational environments. Finally, we find evidence of a higher likelihood of low value players staying with the object when their valuation for the object increases and when they know the valuation of their opponents; however, the monetary amount they have to pay for staying with the object plays a relevant role in this decision.

Given the many interconnections between socio-economic and ecological systems, for Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) to be effective, decision makers must consider metrics for both. Supply side tools and assessments characterize ecosystem condition, functioning, and potential to provide ecosystem goods and services (EGS). Demand side tools, including economic valuation, assess people’s preferences for EGS and sometimes estimate the monetary amount people are willing to pay for a good or service. However, economic valuation is often omitted from assessments, due to lack of data or expertise; and economic valuation alone may not sufficiently capture all important aspects of some decisions. Benefit-relevant indicators have evolved as a way to measure the connection between goods or services that may be provided by an ecosystem, and people who may benefit from those services, while stopping short of valuation (Olander et al., Ecol Indic 85:1262–1272, 2018). Like economic valuation, benefit-relevant indicators can help assess trade-offs and compare alternative outcomes (National Ecosystem Services Partnership, Federal resource management and ecosystem services guidebook. National Ecosystem Services Partnership, Duke University, Durham, 2016). The Rapid Benefit Indicators (RBI) approach is an easy-to-use process for choosing a structured set of non-monetary benefit-relevant indicators for assessment (Mazzotta et al., Integr Environ Assess Manag 15:148–159, 2019). The RBI approach indicators are intended to be applied in conjunction with existing ecosystem service assessment approaches and tools, to connect changes in the availability of EGS to the locations where, and how, people benefit from those goods and services. Though developed for use with urban freshwater wetland restoration, the general RBI approach and indicator framework may be adapted and applied to other environmental changes or ecological systems. This chapter will detail the RBI approach and highlight how RBI tools can inform resource management decisions.

The present research included two field studies investigating, firstly, the effects of round and angular typefaces on taste expectations and, secondly, how such expectations may have downstream effects on naturalistic consumer choice. A taste experiment conducted at a science festival asked participants (N = 125) to rate the expected and actual sweetness and sourness of beer served from plastic cups labelled with either angular or round typeface. Effects of typeface were found on both taste expectations and perceived taste, but in opposite directions; participants rated the expected sourness of a beer as higher in the round (vs. angular) typeface condition, whereas they rated perceived sourness as lower in the round compared to the angular typeface condition. A follow-up field study conducted at a beer bar tested whether different typefaces on a beer board would affect actual beer choices. Data consisted of beer transactions (N = 1,952) and included the monetary amount, and the specific style, and size of beer purchased. The results showed that average transaction amount was lower in the round (vs. angular) typeface condition, and that customers purchased more sour beer options in this condition. These findings support a crossmodal compensation account, and suggest that round typefaces could increase choices of contrasting sour products. Hence, marketers may want to consider how typefaces can either enhance or diminish certain tastes.

espanolEn el presente articulo, se analiza si la comision del delito de peculado puede generar responsabilidad penal por el cobro y no devolucion de “gastos de representacion” realizados por los congresistas de la Republica del Peru cuando estos no realizan correctamente la labor de representacion, puesto que este monto dinerario constituye un caudal de naturaleza publica que ha sido encomendado al funcionario publico para su administracion en razon de su cargo. En este sentido, se analizara tambien la naturaleza juridica de los “gastos de representacion”, a fin de sostener que se tratan, en puridad, de “viaticos” que deben ser debidamente justificados. EnglishThis article discusses whether the collection and non-return of “representation expenses” by Congressmen of the Republic of Peru may result in criminal liability for the crime of embezzlement of public funds when they do not do correctly the representation activity, since it would be a monetary amount that constitutes a public funds that has been entrusted to the public official for his administration by reason of his office. In this regard, the legal nature of “representation expenses” will also be analyzed in order to argue that they are in fact “travel expenses” who must be duly regularized.

In this research, we explore supporter lapse behavior after making first-year donations to a nonprofit organization. We argue that two observable variables — the monetary amount of first gift at sign-up and the number of gifts given in the first year of the support relationship — can be used to approximate the level of commitment to supporting the organization and to predict likelihood of lapse in subsequent years. The reasoning is that the two variables are indications of the psychological resources as well as the financial resources expended in reaching donation decisions. The research hypotheses were tested using fundraising data extracted from the databases of two leading US-based nonprofit organizations. Results indicate that both variables had significant effects. Interestingly, the number of gifts given in the first year of the support relationship had a much bigger effect than the dollar amount of the gift at sign-up: In one organization, supporters who donated more than one gift in the first year were 39% less likely to lapse in subsequent years compared with their one-gift counterparts, while a tenfold increase in the dollar amount of the first gift at sign-up (e.g., from $10 to $100) predicted only 4% decrease in the lapse likelihood in subsequent years. Insights from this research may help to build better practices of supporter base management in “low-touch” fundraising programs for attracting, building relationships with, and sending appeals to supporters. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

International audience; This paper reports an experimental test of the relative efficiency of a whistleblowing-based audit scheme compared to a random-based audit scheme. We design a between-subjects laboratory experiment with two treatments: a benchmark with a random-based audit scheme and an alternative treatment in which taxpayers can blow the whistle. Compared to the benchmark, the whistleblowing-based audit scheme (i) improves the targeting of evaders, (ii) decreases the monetary amount of tax evasion, and (iii) raises the tax levy.

Substantial discrepancies exist between industry-reported and self-reported conflicts of interest (COI). Although authors with relevant, self-reported financial COI are more likely to write studies favorable to industry sponsors, it is unknown whether undisclosed COI have the same effect. We hypothesized that surgeons who fail to disclose COI are more likely to publish findings that are favorable to industry than surgeons with no COI. PubMed was searched for articles in multiple surgical specialties. Financial COI reported by surgeons and industry were compared. COI were considered to be relevant if they were associated with the product(s) mentioned by an article. Primary outcome was favorability, which was defined as an impression favorable to the product(s) discussed by an article and was determined by 3 independent, blinded clinicians for each article. Primary analysis compared incomplete self-disclosure to no COI. Ordered logistic multivariable regression modeling was used to assess factors associated with favorability. Overall, 337 articles were reviewed. There was a high rate of discordance in the reporting of COI (70.3%). When surgeons failed to disclose COI, their conclusions were significantly more likely to favor industry than surgeons without COI (RR 1.2, 95% CI 1.1–1.4, p

This paper analyzes the recent cooperation of Spanish territories (mainly the Canary Islands and Deputation of Barcelona) with Canelones in Uruguay from 2005 to 2010. The study uses information from in depth interviews, a survey to key actors, as well as bibliographical sources. The aim is to contribute to understand the motivations and foundations of cooperation between these territories, in order to analyze the advantages and opportunities of territorial cooperation to support processes of local and regional development. The paper argues that the most important contribution of territorial cooperation is not the support in physical infrastructure or the monetary amount of aid itself (funds), but refers to the generation of intangible assets for development. For instance, the joint learning resulting from the exchange of experience and the transfer of know-how and specific knowledge about dealing with similar challenges.

The provision of reliable and adequate drinking water services in rural communities is important. Here, the researchers reported on a study that evaluated the respondents' willingness to pay for water services in the two communities in Mutale Local Municipality, South Africa. The study was accomplished through open-ended questionnaire interviews with selected respondents. The study showed that respondents were dissatisfied with the unreliable water services (89.9%) but were willing to pay for water services to secure reliable water services (95.5%). The respondents with tertiary level education were willing to pay R 150 per month per 6 kilolitres. The maximum 6 kilolitres is the free basic water services that the municipality can provide without collecting water revenues. The following variables: literacy levels; household size of 3 to 6 members; the age of 40; and monthly incomes, had a significant effect (p = 0.005) on the monetary amount and the willingness to pay.

This paper deals with theoretical and practical aspects regarding the topic of a monetary amount intended for the state to provide financial assistance to victims of crime within the meaning of § 179g par. 2 letter b), § 307 par. 2 letter b) and § 309 par. 1 letter d) cr. procedure code. The theoretical part of this paper offers a detailed criminal law and criminological insight into this issue, the subsequent practical part concerns how often and in what cases the prosecution offices or the courts make use in practice of these types of diversion in criminal proceedings as a common practice and where they are used on the contrary only exceptionally, and how high the monetary amount for these purposes approximately is; all is based on the statistics related to the monetary amount intended for the state to provide financial assistance to victims of crime. The paper is concluded by a summary of the current situation and conclusions of the author arising from it.

This paper considers the problem of facilitating coalition formation in self-interested multi-agent environments. To successfully form a coalition, agents must collectively agree on the monetary amount to charge for completion of a task as well as the distribution of subtasks within the coalition. The problem is accentuated as different subtasks have various degrees of difficulty and the agents do not possess perfect information. That is, an agent is uncertain of the true monetary requirement of other agents for completing subtasks. These complexities, coupled with the self-interested nature of agents, can inhibit or even prevent the formation of coalitions in such a real-world setting. As a solution we present an auction-based protocol called ACCORD. ACCORD facilitates coalition formation by promoting the adoption of cooperative behaviour amongst agents as a means of overcoming the complexities outlined above. Through extensive empirical analysis we analyse two variations of the ACCORD protocol and demonstrate that cooperative and fair behaviour is dominant and any agents deviating from this behaviour suffer a degradation in performance.

Centralized reputation systems use stars and reviews and thus require algorithm secrecy to avoid manipulation. In autonomous open source decentralized systems this luxury is not available. We create a reputation network for decentralized marketplaces where the trust each user gives to the other users is quantifiable and expressed in monetary terms. We introduce a new model for bitcoin wallets in which user coins are split among trusted associates. Direct trust is defined using shared bitcoin accounts via bitcoin’s 1-of-2 multisig. Indirect trust is subsequently defined transitively. This enables formal game theoretic arguments pertaining to risk analysis. We prove that risk and maximum flows are equivalent in our model and that our system is Sybil-resilient. Our system allows for concrete financial decisions on the subjective monetary amount a pseudonymous party can be trusted with. Risk remains invariant under a direct trust redistribution operation followed by a purchase.

Objective To estimate the funds required to support a MyPlate diet and to estimate the additional costs needed for Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program recipients to adhere to the MyPlate diet. Design Using the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) MyPlate dietary guidelines that specify recommendations for individuals based on age and gender and retail price data from the USDA, the cost of following USDA's MyPlate guidelines for consuming 3 meals daily was estimated for the following individuals: children, adolescents, female adults, male adults, female seniors, male seniors, and a 4-person family. Main Outcome Measures Cost of consuming a MyPlate diet, including canned, frozen, and fresh produce as part of the diet. Analysis Descriptive analysis of the cost of consuming a MyPlate diet. Results Consuming a MyPlate diet consisting of only fresh fruits and vegetables is the most expensive diet. The monthly additional costs on an individual basis is the largest for boys aged 12–17 years ($75/mo) because they have the largest quantity of food consumed compared with all other gender and age groups. The monthly cost for a family of 4 ranged from $1,109 to $1,249/mo. Conclusions and Implications The monetary amount of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits may be insufficient to support a healthy diet recommended by federal nutrition guidelines.

Road Traffic Accidents in developing countries are a serious concern in terms of safety and economy. RTAs share a considerable amount of overall life, resource, and productivity losses. It has become essential to monetize RTAs to aid the policymakers, economists, and the state government to efficiently select the cost-effective countermeasure for the safety of road users. The costs can be utilized in framing cost-effective safety measures and policies. This paper focuses on estimating the overall costs of Road Traffic Accidents in the city of Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Pakistan, by using the Human Capital Approach to estimate the monetary amount that the Road Traffic Accidents have cost to the cities in the year 2016. The research has categorized the costs into 5 main components, namely: medical costs, property damage costs, loss output, human loss, and administrative costs. A total of 10187 incidents have been recorded in the cities involving 12573 victims and 18136 vehicles. Results suggested that a total of pkr 2.183 billion has been incurred by the State of Pakistan with a loss of about 0.0074% to the GDP. The breakdown of the costs was as follows: Medical costs (pkr 93,898,640), and it comprises 4.26% of the total cost; Property damage costs include vehicular and property damage repair (pkr 214,840,463), and it comprises 9.84% of the total cost; Loss output (pkr 1,316,000,000), and it comprises 60.27% of the total cost; Human costs (pkr 473,584,345), and it comprise 21.69% of the total cost; Administrative costs (pkr 85,730,725), and it comprises 3.92% of the total cost.

Companies commonly use philanthropic campaigns to attract and retain customers. Such campaigns often take the form of charity-linked promotions, where a company donates money to a cause when a customer makes a purchase. However, customer-related effects of such promotions remain under-studied, an issue this study investigates using field experiments in an online taxi booking company.Customers were randomly assigned to receive either a charity-linked or discount-based promotion. Take-up rates for charity-linked promotions were smaller than for discount-based promotions, and also less sensitive to the monetary amount. This is consistent with customer decisions being driven by a “warm glow” of giving and not just their extent of social impact.Although promotion take-up did represent new bookings rather than substitution of non-promotional bookings, there is little evidence of an increase in subsequent purchase frequency.This result raises questions regarding the common practice of online platforms devoting significant investor funds for short-term promotions.

The issue of collaboration amongst agents in a multi-agent system (MAS) represents a challenging research problem. In this paper we focus on a form of cooperation known as coalition formation. The problem we consider is how to facilitate the formation of a coalition in a competitive marketplace, where self-interested agents must cooperate by forming a coalition in order to complete a task. Agents must reach a consensus on both the monetary amount to charge for completion of a task as well as the distribution of the required workload. The problem is further complicated because different subtasks have various degrees of difficulty and each agent is uncertain of the payment another agent requires for performing specific subtasks. These complexities, coupled with the self-interested nature of agents, can inhibit or even prevent the formation of coalitions in such a real-world setting. As a solution, a novel auction-based protocol called ACCORD is proposed here. ACCORD manages real-world complexities by promoting the adoption of cooperative behaviour amongst agents. Through extensive empirical analysis we analyse the ACCORD protocol and demonstrate that cooperative and fair behaviour is dominant and any agents deviating from this behaviour perform less well over time.