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Mechanical damage to stalagmites is commonly observed in mid-latitude caves. Former studies have identified thermoelastic ice expansion as a plausible mechanism for such damage. This study builds on these findings and investigates the role of ice flow along the cave bed as a possible second mechanism in stalagmite damage. Utilizing fluid–structure interaction models based on the finite-element method, forces created by ice flow are simulated for different stalagmite geometries. The resulting effects of such forces on the structural integrity of stalagmites are analyzed and presented. Our results suggest that structural failure of stalagmites caused by ice flow is possible, albeit unlikely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geothermal heat sources beneath glaciers and ice caps influence local ice-dynamics and mass balance but also control ice surface depression evolution as well as subglacial water reservoir dynamics. Resulting jökulhlaups (i.e., glacier lake outburst floods) impose danger to people and infrastructure, especially in Iceland, where they are closely monitored. Due to hundreds of meters of ice, direct measurements of heat source strength and extent are not possible. We present an indirect measurement method which utilizes ice flow simulations and glacier surface data, such as surface mass balance and surface depression evolution. Heat source locations can be inferred accurately to simulation grid scales; heat source strength and spatial distributions are also well quantified. Our methods are applied to the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap in Iceland, where we are able to refine previous heat source estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geothermal heat sources beneath glaciers and ice caps influence local ice-dynamics and mass balance, but also control ice surface depression evolution as well as subglacial water reservoir dynamics. Resulting jökulhlaups (i.e. glacier lake outburst floods) impose danger to people and infrastructure, especially in Iceland, where they are closely monitored. Due to hundreds of meters of ice, direct measurements of heat source strength and extent are not possible. We present an indirect measurement method which utilizes ice flow simulations and glacier surface data, such as surface mass balance and surface depression evolution. Heat source locations can be inferred accurately to simulation grid scales; heat source strength and spatial distributions are also well quantified. Our methods are applied to Mýrdalsjökull ice cap in Iceland, where we are able to refine previous heat source estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite of their importance for sea-level rise, seasonal water availability, and as source of geohazards, mountain glaciers are one of the few remaining sub-systems of the global climate system for which no globally applicable, open source, community-driven model exists. Here we present the Open Global Glacier Model (OGGM, http://www.oggm.org), developed to provide a modular and open source numerical model framework for simulating past and future change of any glacier in the world. The modelling chain comprises data downloading tools (glacier outlines, topography, climate, validation data), a preprocessing module, a mass-balance model, a distributed ice thickness estimation model, and an ice flow model. The monthly mass-balance is obtained from gridded climate data and a temperature index melt model. To our knowledge, OGGM is the first global model explicitly simulating glacier dynamics: the model relies on the shallow ice approximation to compute the depth-integrated flux of ice along multiple connected flowlines. In this paper, we describe and illustrate each processing step by applying the model to a selection of glaciers before running global simulations under idealized climate forcings. Even without an in-depth calibration, the model shows a very realistic behaviour. We are able to reproduce earlier estimates of global glacier volume by varying the ice dynamical parameters within a range of plausible values. At the same time, the increased complexity of OGGM compared to other prevalent global glacier models comes at a reasonable computational cost: several dozens of glaciers can be simulated on a personal computer, while global simulations realized in a supercomputing environment take up to a few hours per century. Thanks to the modular framework, modules of various complexity can be added to the codebase, allowing to run new kinds of model intercomparisons in a controlled environment. Future developments will add new physical processes to the model as well as tools to calibrate the model in a more comprehensive way. OGGM spans a wide range of applications, from ice-climate interaction studies at millenial time scales to estimates of the contribution of glaciers to past and future sea-level change. It has the potential to become a self-sustained, community driven model for global and regional glacier evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monthly gravity field models from the GRACE satellite mission are widely used to determine ice mass changes of large ice sheets as well as smaller glaciers and ice caps. Here, we investigate in detail the ice mass changes of the Icelandic ice caps as derived from GRACE data. The small size of the Icelandic ice caps, their location close to other rapidly changing ice covered areas and the low viscosity of the mantle below Iceland make this especially challenging. The mass balance of the ice caps is well constrained by field mass balance measurements, making this area ideal for such investigations. We find that the ice mass changes of the Icelandic ice caps derived from GRACE gravity field models are influenced by both the large gravity change signal resulting from ice mass loss in southeast Greenland and the mass redistribution within the Earth mantle due to glacial isostatic adjustment since the Little Ice Age (~1890 AD). To minimize the signal that leaks towards Iceland from Greenland, we employ an independent mass change estimate of the Greenland Ice Sheet derived from satellite laser altimetry. We also estimate the effect of post Little Ice Age glacial isostatic adjustment, from knowledge of the ice history and GPS network constrained crustal deformation data. We find that both the leakage from Greenland and the post Little Ice Age glacial isostatic adjustment are important to take into account, in order to correctly determine Iceland ice mass changes from GRACE, and when applying these an average mass balance of the Icelandic ice caps of -11.4 ± 2.2 Gt yr-1 for the period 2003-2010 is found. This number corresponds well with available mass balance measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulating glacier surface evolution based on surface velocity and surface mass balance estimates is a common task in glaciology. Like any gravitationally driven flow that is not constrained at the upper surface, glaciers and ice sheets feature a free surface which becomes a free boundary problem within simulations. A kinematic boundary condition is often successfully utilized to represent the surface. However the naturally occurring constraint that the surface elevation (S) can not fall below the bed elevation (B), (S-B >= 0) in combination with a non zero mass balance complicates matter substantially.We present a numerical model to simulate the free surface evolution of glaciers that directly incorporates this natural constraint. It is based on the finite element software package FEniCS solving the Stokes equations for ice flow and a transport equation for the free surface evolution. The evolution of the free surface is treated as a variational inequality, constrained by the bedrock underlying the glacier or the topography of the surrounding ground. To solve this problem, the 'constrained' non–linear problem solving capabilities of PETSc's SNES interface are used. We partition the computational domain into regions where ice exists and its ice-free surroundings. For ice regions we solve the constrained kinematic boundary condition including mass balance and for the surroundings we only solve the constrained mass balance term. This approach is mass conserving as the constraint is considered in the solving process and thus does not require any ad-hoc post-processing steps to enforce mass conservation. The model will become freely available in the framework of the debadvect model (https://github.com/awirbel/debadvect), also providing additional functions for the generation of updated 3D domain models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]