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Incivility, a growing challenge in higher education institutions, interferes with and disrupts the learning process. This study examined faculty members' experiences of students' incivilities in institutions of higher education in Afghanistan. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from 289 faculty members who were teaching in various higher education institutions across Afghanistan. Descriptive and inferential statistics and thematic analysis were used to analyze the data. The findings showed that faculty members experienced varying degrees of a wide range of incivilities in and outside the classroom, including conversing loudly in the class, interruption, and harassment. They also experienced a variety of incivilities related to assessment and grading. A small number of them experienced more serious forms of incivilities including beating, stabbing, and death threats. The findings also revealed that there were not significant differences between participants' experiences of student incivility by their gender, but there were significant differences between faculty members' experience by their level of education and years of teaching experience. The study recommends faculty members and higher education institutions take practical measures to address incivilities inside and outside the classroom in order to create a safe learning environment for faculty members and students.

This brief report presents the results of a re-analysis of data by Yi, Man, and Maie (2023), who investigated L1 and L2 intuitive knowledge of phrasal frequency and collocation strength in multiword sequences. We utilized an individual-differences approach and examined which participant variables (age of onset, length of residence, language use, and L2 proficiency) predicted the participants' accuracy in judging the phrasal frequency and association strength of multiword sequences in English. We found that the demographic variables were only related to the accuracy in judging association strength, but those variables differentially predicted the accuracy depending on whether the collocations were of high or medium association strength.

The traditional perspective on education, teaching, and learning is no longer sufficient in fluid societies exposed to dramatic and rapid changes. The need for continuous educational reform is evident. However, recent paradigmatic societal shifts, extreme events, and extraordinary scientific and technological advances underscore the urgency of these changes. These developments highlight the necessity for innovation and the reduction of intergenerational gaps in educating new generations. By embracing these changes, we can create a more inclusive, adaptable, and innovative educational environment for all. While the Romanian educational system, like many traditional systems, is extensive in its spatial coverage, material resources, human resources, and the number of beneficiaries served, it also presents an opportunity for positive change. Its highly centralized, over-normative, and strictly structured nature, with a top-down control approach, has fostered systemic inertia and resistance to change. However, this also means that with the right strategies, the system can be transformed into a more dynamic and adaptable one. Effective and sustainable reforms are not just the responsibility of policymakers and educational leaders. They require initial assessments of the status quo to identify genuine needs for change and to determine possible obstacles and available resources. Real change and innovation are promoted and supported by a clear definition and understanding of the factors that generate and maintain inertia and resistance to change. Identifying and understanding these complex mechanisms at both the organizational and individual levels should precede any change plan, emphasizing the crucial role of each individual in the process. To identify individual motivations that can generate opposition or resistance to potential change requests within the educational system, we conducted a study involving 293 in-service and pre-service teachers from the Department of Educational Sciences at the West University of Timisoara. The study utilized the Resistance to Change Scale developed by Oreg (2003), a widely recognized and validated tool, which evaluates the primary factors determining resistance to change: routine seeking, emotional reaction, short-term focus, and cognitive rigidity. This scale was administered through a structured questionnaire and the data was analyzed using statistical methods. This study revealed notable variations in attitudes toward change based on gender, residency, and professional status (in-service and pre-service teachers). These findings underscore the importance of addressing both systemic and individual factors to facilitate meaningful and lasting reforms in education. By understanding and mitigating the sources of resistance, educational leaders can implement strategies such as fostering a culture of innovation, providing professional development opportunities, and involving stakeholders in decision-making, that foster a more adaptable and innovative educational environment.

The present study employs regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) to investigate the effects of L2 speakers' chronic regulatory focus on their L2 pragmatic versus grammatical awareness. It involved the participation of 121 Chinese students, who are English language learners, at a university in the United States. Haws et al.'s (2010) questionnaire was used to examine the participants' regulatory dispositions, and a judgment task was adapted from Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei (1998) to assess participants' awareness of grammatical and pragmatic errors, as well as the severity of each type of error. Multiple regression results largely confirmed the predictions. Prevention regulatory focus, concerned with obligations, responsibilities, and negative outcomes, predicted L2 speakers' recognition of grammatical errors and their severity. Conversely, promotion focus, which emphasizes growth, accomplishments, and positive outcomes, positively predicted L2 speakers' perceptions of pragmatic error severity. These findings contribute to the understanding of how differences in chronic motivational orientations can lead to different L2 use patterns and characteristics.

The present study aimed to validate a 70-item Korean bilingual version of the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) using Rasch modeling. The goal was to assess the applicability of this Korean version of the VST for Korean learners of English in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context by examining validity evidence based on Messick's framework. Specifically, the study focused on the content, substantive, and external aspects of construct validity. However, the findings provided weak evidence supporting the utility of the VST as a measure of receptive vocabulary for Korean EFL learners. The test was deemed too easy and lacked the ability to effectively differentiate among varying levels of second language proficiency, with many test items exhibiting unexpected behavior. Additionally, the VST showed a weak correlation with another measure of second language proficiency. In light of these findings, the study offers specific recommendations for improving the test's validity and usefulness.

This study sought to identify how first-grade students in one Midwest state cognized hope. Using a case-study research method, the authors identify recommendations for practice that draw on the alignment between developing hope in students through school leadership. Previous research has highlighted school leadership's significant role in multiple pathways for student success. This study demonstrates that young children can cognize abstract topics such as hope and presents ways educational leaders can support student social-emotional well-being in the daily curriculum through hope education.

Despite undeniable advances in research on language learning strategies in the last several decades, empirical investigations of actions and thoughts that learners engage in to better understand and use grammar structures in different contexts, or grammar learning strategies (GLS), remain scarce. Moreover, there is a paucity of studies examining the effects of pedagogical interventions in this area, both with respect to the use of different types of GLS and the mastery of grammar structures in terms of explicit and implicit (automatized) knowledge. There is also no empirical evidence concerning the mediating role of individual difference (ID) factors in this respect. The paper outlines a study currently in progress that seeks to address all of these gaps. The first part is devoted to a brief overview of key issues related to the definition and classification of GLS as well as a synthesis of available research in this area. This is followed by a description of an intervention-based research project which explores the effects of strategies-based instruction (SBI) targeting GLS by English majors in Poland, also taking into account the moderating impact of selected ID variables. In particular, the methodology of the study is presented and the envisaged contributions of the intervention are considered.

Students' seating selection is a significant physical variable that has implications for both teachers and students. These seating preferences have been linked to students' personalities, motivation, and academic performance. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the cultural influences on these preferences. In this exploratory qualitative study, we aim to investigate the cultural factors that influence the seating choices of undergraduate students. The study participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Face-to-face interviews and scenario simulation surveys were utilized to collect data, which was analyzed using thematic analysis. The study's findings suggest that seating preferences are largely a function of individual differences and personal preferences, which often stem from personal and cultural factors. These factors are discussed under five primary themes: course academic value, gaining positive experiences, avoiding negative experiences, modesty and humility, and social belonging. These findings have implications for teaching and learning and for instructors, especially those from foreign cultures.

The ability to construct scientific explanations is a vital goal of learning science at all levels. Students from different backgrounds are likely to have this ability differently. This research aimed to assess Thai grade 10 students' ability to construct scientific explanations, examine differences based on learning achievement, attitude toward science, and school size, and find correlations among these variables. The study included 231 students from Phetchaburi province, Thailand, with 77.5% showing moderate ability levels. The research identified significant differences in students' ability levels based on their learning achievement, attitude toward science, and school size. The levels of students' ability correlated with their learning achievement, attitude toward science, and school size. In addition, students with high learning achievement, and positive attitudes, and who attended larger schools tended to have higher ability levels. However, there was no significant relationship between the levels of students' attitudes toward science and school size. These findings highlight the importance of considering individual differences and backgrounds when teaching science, particularly in terms of learning achievement, attitude toward science, and school size.

Purpose: This study aims to develop a teaching model of the Malay language for non-native and foreign speakers in schools. Implementing this model can assist educators in teaching the Malay language to students who do not use it as their first language in everyday use. Methodology: This study used a qualitative approach to develop teaching models for non-native and foreign Malay speakers. Interviews were conducted with 27 teachers and 23 stakeholders who are experts in teaching the Malay language, especially in teaching non-native speakers. A prototype model was developed thematically as a result of interviews using ATLAS.ti 22. Further, the prototype model was used by ten teachers from primary, secondary, and international schools in their teaching. Findings: This study has succeeded in developing a model for teaching the Malay language to non-native speakers and foreigners that includes five elements: teaching strategies, individual differences, input, social, and motivation. This model strongly emphasises instruction involving interaction, communication, and bilateral relations as a medium for students' language acquisition and meaningful input. Verbal interaction between teachers and students can stimulate and improve students' language skills in learning Malay. Significance: This model can help teachers teach the Malay language to non-native speakers and foreigners with a greater focus on achieving learning objectives. This model is expected to expand the usage, cultivate interest, and facilitate teaching the Malay language in educational institutions.

This practice report describes a 12-week stand-alone course designed to address the challenges university students face in foreign language classes. Adopting principles of transformative language learning, course content, activities and resources were designed and implemented to dispel myths and preconceptions regarding language instruction, promote self-directed, independent learning, and raise awareness of the cognitive and socio-emotional processes involved in language learning. Students' feedback indicate that the course had a significant impact on their perceptions of adult language learning, their capacity to reflect on their use of strategies, and the importance of developing a plan to continue applying these new understandings in their academic pursuits. The course fostered a shift in students' perspective, from viewing themselves as passive recipients of 'language injections', to becoming self-directed, motivated, and independent learners.

In this study I examine the academic self-concept (ASC) of students who changed from vocational to academic tracking at the transition to upper secondary education in Germany. I ask (1) how their ASC differs to the ASC of their established peers in academic tracking, and (2) how their ASC is affected by the change in the learning environment. Using a subsample of the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS; N = 4109), findings show that newcomers to academic tracking have a stronger ASC than their peers. However, social differences between the social milieu of origin and the one prevailing at school significantly reduce the ASC. These differences are interpreted as being social-habitual and tested via socioeconomic status, cultural capital, and parental solidarity expectations at the school level. Results differ according to immigrant origin; immigrant newcomers to academic tracking have higher ASC than their established peers, and context effects are more influential. I complement previous research by using a quantitative approach to test the theoretical mechanisms of a qualitative research perspective on upward mobility.

Previous studies reported mixed findings on autistic individuals' pitch perception relative to neurotypical (NT) individuals. We investigated whether this may be partly due to individual differences in cognitive abilities by comparing their performance on various pitch perception tasks on a large sample (n = 164) of autistic and NT children and adults. Our findings revealed that: (i) autistic individuals either showed similar or worse performance than NT individuals on the pitch tasks; (ii) cognitive abilities were associated with some pitch task performance; and (iii) cognitive abilities modulated the relationship between autism diagnosis and pitch perception on some tasks. Our findings highlight the importance of taking an individual differences approach to understand the strengths and weaknesses of pitch processing in autism.

Purpose: This study examined predictors of sexual victimization among autistic and non-autistic college students. Specifically, we aimed to determine whether autistic students are more likely than non-autistic students to experience unwanted sexual contact and sexual assault, controlling for co-occurring diagnoses. We also aimed to determine whether students with other disabilities, specifically ADHD, learning disability (LD), and psychological disorders, are more likely than students without these disabilities to experience unwanted sexual contact and sexual assault. Methods: Autistic students (n = 270) and non-autistic students (n = 270) who had participated in a nationwide survey were matched on demographic characteristics and co-occurring diagnoses. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to address the research questions and evaluate predictors of unwanted sexual contact and sexual assault. Results: Autistic students were as likely as non-autistic students to have experienced unwanted sexual contact and sexual assault, controlling for co-occurring diagnoses. Regardless of autism diagnostic status, students with ADHD were more likely than students without ADHD to have experienced unwanted sexual contact and sexual assault. Conclusions: Although autism diagnostic status was not a significant predictor of unwanted sexual contact or sexual assault, other factors associated with increased risk of sexual victimization, such as co-occurring ADHD, are likely to be found in autistic populations. This study highlights the importance of educational, social, and institutional supports to decrease sexual victimization among college students with neurodevelopmental disabilities.

This study used idiodynamic methodology to investigate the dynamics of second language (L2) learners' foreign language anxiety (FLA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and the details of emotion regulation (ER) directed at managing these emotions, in pair- and group-work speaking tasks performed by 10 advanced English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners. L2 classroom tasks were video recorded and then while viewing them, participants registered their emotion ratings per second. In stimulated-recall interviews, they revealed the causes of emotional intensity fluctuations and ER strategies used to manage the emotions. Additionally, the adapted Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data from a larger same-population sample (N = 103). The major high ecological validity results concerned (a) the highly individual patterns of emotional intensity fluctuations, with FLA fluctuating more than FLE, (b) the common triggers and mitigators of FLA and FLE--including specific errors, performance deficits, and message-conceptualization problems--and FLE triggers and mitigators related to its social aspect, (c) the varying degrees of the relationship between FLE and FLA, which depends on communication dynamics, and (d) a range of ER strategies, including their chains (sequences) and clusters (co-occurrence), with a special focus on the most common category--namely, cognitive ER, some types of which emerged as automatic ER processes.

The study investigated the effect of task complexity (TC) on second language (L2) learners' affective responses and writing performance and how these were modulated by cognitive and affective individual difference (ID) factors. A total of 412 Chinese 8th-grade English-as-a-foreign-language learners completed a working memory (WM) test, a scale measuring trait-like L2 writing enjoyment, a simple (n = 206) or complex (n = 206) argumentative writing task, and posttask scales measuring task-specific enjoyment and motivation. Independent t-test results showed that increased TC contributed to a slight but significant enhancement in task motivation and enjoyment and a significant performance improvement in content and organization but not in language. Structural equation modeling results showed that the cognitive and affective ID factors predicted writing performance jointly: WM and task motivation predicted writing performance consistently in both simple and complex tasks, task-specific enjoyment only played its role in the complex task, and trait-like enjoyment became insignificant in predicting task performance. These findings support the integrated task-mediated cognitive-affective model of L2 writing we propose by synthesizing and extending existing models. This study highlights the need to pay attention to the affective dimension of tasks and suggests TC as an intervention strategy to make a task more motivating and enjoyable.

Preschoolers' language abilities are associated with their social interactions in early childhood classrooms. Few studies, however, have examined associations between social interactions and objective measures of children's real-time classroom language environments, information key to informing interventions to support preschool children at risk for language delays. In this pilot study, we examined associations between objective measures of real-time language environments (input and output) recorded via the Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) system and observations of children's positive and negative interactions with peers and teachers in an early intervention classroom for children with developmental delays (n = 9, seven girls). Mixed effects regression models revealed associations between children's language environments (input and output) and their social interactions with peers and teachers. More talkative children were more likely to have a high number of positive peer interactions. Children who received more language input from teachers were more likely to have a higher number of positive teacher--child interactions, an effect that was stronger for children with the lowest language output. The results of this pilot study build on prior research by using real-time objective measurement to examine how children's language input from peers and teachers and children's own language output supports positive interactions within early intervention classrooms.

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of ordinality skills in early numerical development. Here, we investigate individual differences in ordering sets of items and suggest that children might also differ in their tendency to spontaneously recognize and use numerical order in everyday situations. This study investigated the individual differences in 3- to 4-year-old children's tendency to spontaneously focus on numerical order (SFONO), and their association with early numerical skills. One hundred fifty children were presented with three SFONO tasks designed as play-like activities, where numerical order was one aspect that could be focused on. In addition, the children were administered tasks addressing spontaneous focusing on numerosity (SFON), numerical ordering, cardinality recognition, and number sequence production. Our results showed that children had substantial individual differences in all measures, including SFONO tendency. Children's SFONO tendency was associated with their early numerical skills. To further investigate the association between SFONO tendency and numerical ordering skills, a hierarchical regression was conducted for a group of children who could successfully order sets from one to three at a minimum and were regarded as likely having the requisite skills to spontaneously focus on numerical order. The findings reveal that SFONO tendency had a unique contribution to children's numerical ordering skills, even after controlling for age, cardinality recognition, and number sequence production. The results suggest that SFONO tendency potentially plays a relevant role in children's numerical development.

We leverage log data from an educational app and two-way text message records from over 3,500 students during the summers of 2019 and 2020 and in-depth interviews in Spanish and English to identify patterns of family engagement with educational technology. Based on the type and timing of technology use, we identify several distinct profiles of engagement, which we group into two categories: independent users who engage with technology-based educational software independently and interaction-supported users who use two-way communications to support their engagement. We also find that as the demands of families from schools increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, Spanish-speaking families were significantly more likely than English-speaking families to engage with educational technology across all categories of families, particularly as interaction-supported users.

The aim of this study was to investigate individual differences in mathematical problem-solving among 3- to 5-year-old children (N = 328; n[subscript 3-year-olds] = 115, n[subscript 4-year-olds] = 167, n[subscript 5-year-olds] = 46). First, we examined the extent to which children in this age group were able to solve open and closed non-routine mathematical problems representing a variety of mathematical domains. Second, we investigated the extent to which underlying academic and cognitive skills (i.e., expressive and receptive language, visuospatial, and early numeracy skills) were associated with individual differences in mathematical problem-solving concurrently and longitudinally (i.e., one year later). The results showed that 4- to 5-year-olds were able to solve a variety of non-routine mathematical problems. However, though 3-year-olds were also able to solve a variety of problems, the mathematical problem-solving measure did not meet the reliability criteria, resulting in excluding 3-year-olds from further analyses. Expressive and receptive language, visuospatial, and early numeracy skills were associated with mathematical problem-solving concurrently among 4-year-olds. Among 5-year-olds, only visuospatial and early numeracy skills were associated with mathematical problem-solving. Furthermore, only prior mathematical problem-solving skills and early numeracy skills predicted mathematical problem-solving skills longitudinally. These findings indicate that preschoolers are able to solve open and closed non-routine mathematical problems representing a variety of mathematical domains. Additionally, individual differences may stem not only from differences in mathematical problem-solving skills but also from early numeracy.

Purpose: Response times (RTs) are commonly used in studying language acquisition. However, previous research utilizing RT in the context of language has largely overlooked the intra-individual variability (IIV) of RTs, which could hold significant information about the processes underlying language acquisition. Method: We explored the association between language abilities and RT variability in visuomotor tasks using two data sets from previously published studies. The participants were 7- to 10-year-old children (n = 77). Results: Our results suggest that increased variability in RTs is associated with weaker language abilities. Specifically, this within-participant variability in visuomotor RTs, especially the proportion of unusually slow responses, predicted language abilities better than mean RTs, a factor often linked to language skills in past research. Conclusions: Based on our findings, we introduce the IIV hypothesis in explaining individual differences in language development. According to our hypothesis, inconsistency in the timing of cognitive processes, reflected by increased IIV in RTs, degrades learning different aspects of language, and results in individual differences in language abilities. Future studies should further examine the relationship between IIV and language abilities, and test the extent to which the possible relationship is causal.

Despite the recognized importance of addressing belief bias in critical thinking, little is known about the neural activity underlying belief-bias reasoning and its connection to critical thinking. The study utilized event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine the neural responses during belief-bias reasoning and explored the extent to which these ERPs explained individual differences in critical thinking. A sample of university students (N = 72) participated in a belief-bias syllogistic reasoning task while their electroencephalographic data were recorded. The task manipulated conflicts between belief and logic within each syllogism. Additionally, participants completed established tests to assess their critical thinking. Our findings revealed that participants with high levels of critical thinking exhibited larger amplitudes of the P600 and late positive component (LPC), indicating enhanced syntactic analysis and relation integration. Moreover, those with high levels of critical thinking displayed smaller N400 amplitudes, suggesting reduced reliance on automatic semantic processing. Notably, participants, especially those with high levels of critical thinking, demonstrated larger late negative component (LNC) amplitudes in response to incongruent syllogisms than to congruent syllogisms, highlighting their heightened capacity to address conflicts between belief and logic. Furthermore, regression analyses indicated that critical thinking relied on both addressing conflicts between belief and logic, as indexed by the LNC, and generating conclusions, as indexed by the P3 components (including both P600 and LPC). These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of critical thinking by shedding light on the neural processes associated with unbiased reasoning and metacognition, as well as offer implications for assessing critical thinking.

In existing studies of investigative interviewing, the effects of interviewing contexts have often been measured with little consideration of the reciprocal interviewee's stable characteristics. To clarify the factors and conditions under which adults are likely to retain accurate information and be resistant (or vulnerable) to suggestions during interviews, this study systematically explored the relative contributions of interviewing conditions (i.e., interviewer behaviour and exposure to post-event misinformation) and individual differences (i.e., HEXACO personality traits, perceived parenting styles, social trait and state anxiety). A total of 159 Malaysian adults (M = 24.70; SD = 5.48) were assessed virtually using the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 1. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that higher recall accuracy was linked with supportive interviewer behaviour and non-exposure to misinformation. Notably, individual's personality traits and developmental environment emerged as significant predictors of recall and suggestibility. The implications of remote interviewing in investigations are also discussed.

Purpose: This longitudinal study investigated the trajectory of Spanish article accuracy in Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) from preschool to first grade, addressing the need for longitudinal data on the variability of Spanish grammatical skills in DLLs in English immersion classrooms. Method: Language sample analysis was conducted on 336 Spanish and English narrative retells elicited from 31 Spanish-English DLLs (range: 45-85 months). Growth curve models captured within- and between-individual change in article accuracy from the beginning of preschool to the end of first grade. Results: As a group, DLLs did not exhibit significant positive or negative growth in Spanish article accuracy over time. On average, article accuracy remained stable at 76% from preschool throughout first grade. Participants exhibited significant variability in article accuracy that was partly explained by changes in Spanish proficiency. Spanish article accuracy was lower for DLLs with lower Spanish proficiency indexed by measures from the Spanish language samples, while English proficiency indexed by the English language samples did not affect Spanish article accuracy. Conclusions: These findings suggest that expectations for Spanish grammatical performance in DLLs need to be adjusted to account for the possible impact of not receiving Spanish support in English immersion school settings. DLLs in these instructional programs do not exhibit article accuracy at a level expected for monolingual Spanish speakers. Significant individual differences in both individual status and growth rates of Spanish article accuracy highlight the broad variability in Spanish language skills of DLLs in the United States.

It is known that the rhythms of speech are visible on the face, accurately mirroring changes in the vocal tract. These low-frequency visual temporal movements are tightly correlated with speech output, and both visual speech (e.g., mouth motion) and the acoustic speech amplitude envelope entrain neural oscillations. Low-frequency visual temporal information ('visual prosody') is known from behavioural studies to be perceived by infants, but oscillatory studies are currently lacking. Here we measure cortical tracking of low-frequency visual temporal information by 5- and 8-month-old infants using a rhythmic speech paradigm (repetition of the syllable 'ta' at 2 Hz). Eye-tracking data were collected simultaneously with EEG, enabling computation of cortical tracking and phase angle during visual-only speech presentation. Significantly higher power at the stimulus frequency indicated that cortical tracking occurred across both ages. Further, individual differences in preferred phase to visual speech related to subsequent measures of language acquisition. The difference in phase between visual-only speech and the same speech presented as auditory-visual at 6- and 9-months was also examined. These neural data suggest that individual differences in early language acquisition may be related to the phase of entrainment to visual rhythmic input in infancy.

Prominent theories of reading development have separately emphasized the relevance of children's skill in learning (Share, 2008) and lexical representations (Perfetti & Hart, 2002). Integrating these ideas, we examined whether skill in learning lexical representations is a mechanism that might explain children's reading development. To do so we conducted a longitudinal study, following 139 children from Grades 3 to 5. In Grade 3, children completed measures of word reading and reading comprehension and again at Grade 5. In Grade 4, children read short stories containing novel words; they were later tested on their memory for the spellings and meanings of these new words, capturing orthographic and semantic learning, respectively. Using multiple-mediation path analysis, we tested whether children's skill in learning orthographic and semantic dimensions of new words was a mediator of individual differences in each of word reading and reading comprehension. In models controlling for nonverbal ability, working memory, vocabulary, and phonological awareness, we found two clear effects: individual differences in orthographic learning at Grade 4 mediated the gains that children made in word reading between Grades 3 and 5 and individual differences in semantic learning at Grade 4 mediated gains in reading comprehension over the same time period. These findings suggest that children's ability to learn lexical representations is a mechanism in reading development, with orthographic effects on word reading and semantic effects on reading comprehension. These findings show the power and the specificity of children's capacity to learn in determining their progress in learning to read.

The temporal focus hypothesis (TFH) entails that individuals who value the past tend to conceptualize it in front, whereas individuals who value the future tend to map the future in front instead (de la Fuente et al., 2014). This varies as a function of culture, individual differences, and context. Here, we extend this line of inquiry by testing a contextual variable, namely COVID-19 quarantine status, and an individual differences variable, namely future precautionary behavior towards COVID-19. Contrary to what the TFH would predict, we show that participants map the future to a frontal position, regardless of individual attitudes and quarantine status. However, participants who displayed more future precautionary behavior were also more future-focused than participants who displayed less such behaviour, but this did not predict their front--back mappings of the future. These findings suggest that individual differences may be stronger determinants of temporal focus than contextual variables.

In some tracked educational systems, track recommendations are formulated by primary school teachers to determine the secondary school level that students will be allocated to. While teachers mostly base their track recommendations on students' prior achievement, the extent to which teachers also consider perceived student attributes, such as students' perceived work habits or parental involvement, and the extent to which these perceived student attributes are predictive for secondary school performance is unclear. Therefore, we first investigated the extent to which teachers consider their perceptions of student attributes in their track recommendations (RQ1). Differences between students from different backgrounds and differences between teachers were taken into account. Second, we examined the extent to which primary school teachers' perceptions of student attributes are predictive for their secondary school performance (RQ2). Participants were 17,953 Grade 6 students from 1105 Dutch primary school teachers (RQ1) and 4150 Grade 9 students from 1289 Dutch secondary school classes (RQ2). Data used in this research were analysed using multilevel models. Findings indicated that teacher-perceived student attributes played only a minor role in track recommendations and secondary school performance. Yet the extent to which these attributes were considered by teachers differed based on students' background and differed between teachers. For secondary school performance, teacher-perceived student attributes to have limited predictive value. The limited predictive value of teacher-perceived student attributes for students' performance in secondary education suggests that teachers may need to be careful with taking perceived student attributes into account when formulating track recommendations.

This introductory chapter provides a framing of non-Christian students in higher education. It begins by providing data on the current contexts on the religious identities of college students. Additionally, the chapter examines the concept of Christian privilege and how religious discrimination is institutionalized in the organizational structures of higher education. Primarily, this chapter is a historical overview of the marginalization of non-Christian students on colleges and universities. From the time the colleges and universities were founded, Christianity has been embedded in the function and mission of higher education. This has led to the continual marginalization of non-Christian students throughout history. The chapter concludes with an overview of the volume.

Antiracism education can be a transformative experience for White college students. However, the process of learning can engender strong reactions (e.g., defensiveness) that disrupts participation. Though some White students are more successful in moving closer toward an antiracist position, little is known about this group. This gap in knowledge is concerning given that the design and effectiveness of antiracism education is potentially contingent on understanding the makeup of White antiracist students and characteristics that may contribute to their antiracist development. Thus, the purpose of this study was to elucidate the characteristics of White antiracist college students. Particularly, White-identified college students (N = 259) were categorized into an antiracist or nonantiracist group and assessed for group differences across several individual characteristics. The findings suggest that White antiracist college students differed from nonantiracist White students in important ways that may empirically inform antiracism education and aid the work of antiracism college educators.

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head-mounted display IVR device or a pre-recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post-test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post-test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning.

In multimedia learning, there is a lot of new information that learners are exposed to, making it a cognitively intensive process. Poorly-designed multimedia lessons can introduce distractions that must be dealt with by the learner. However, learners do not all share the same skill at managing incoming information or holding capacity, which could create individual differences in the impact of multimedia lessons on learning and lead to inequity in learning. In three experiments, learners saw a multimedia lesson varying in the amount of distracting material included: high (Experiment 1), moderate (Experiment 2), or low (Experiment 3). Learners took a posttest and completed tasks to assess individual differences in managing incoming information (executive function) and holding capacity (working memory capacity). When distractions were present (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), executive function was related to posttest performance such that as executive functioning increased, performance on the posttest increased. However, when distractions were not present (Experiment 3), executive function was not related to posttest performance. Individual differences in working memory capacity were not related to posttest performance at any level of distraction. This indicates the importance of considering individual differences in learners' executive functioning in the design of multimedia lessons.

Background: Although research clearly demonstrates the importance of motivation in mathematics learning, relatively little is known about the developmental dynamics between different facets of mathematics motivation and performance, especially in the early years of schooling. Aims: In a longitudinal setting, we examined (1) how children's ability self-concept and intrinsic value in mathematics change over time during their first 3 years in school, (2) how those changes relate to each other and (3) how they connect with mathematics performance. Sample: The participants were 285 Finnish school-beginners (52.7% girls). Methods: Latent growth curve modelling was used to examine the developmental trajectories of children's ability self-concept and intrinsic value, and how those trajectories predicted later mathematics achievement (both mathematics test performance and teacher-rated grades), while controlling for previous mathematics performance and gender. Results: The results showed significant decreases in children's ability self-concept and intrinsic value, but also significant individual differences in the trajectories. The strong dependency between the levels and changes in self-concept and intrinsic value led us to specify a factor-of-curves latent growth curve model, thus merging the trajectories of ability self-concept and intrinsic value into one common model. Subsequent results showed prior mathematics performance to predict change in children's mathematics motivation, and both the level and change in mathematics motivation to predict third-grade performance and teacher-rated grade. Conclusions: Our findings provide evidence for a developmental link between children's ability self-concept, intrinsic value and achievement. Achievement seems to enhance mathematics motivation, and positive motivation appears to support the further development of mathematics skills.

The purpose of this provincial cross-sectional survey (N = 254) was to explore the mental health literacy (MHL) of educators, and particularly, if training and experience explains differences in MHL. There were meaningful differences based on MHL training and between educators of different division levels. Those who completed graduate degrees or took Learn or Teach MHL training modules clearly had stronger MHL knowledge and abilities to accurately discriminate mental health needs on a vignette measure. Pre-primary educators had the lowest MHL knowledge and ability to discriminate mental health needs on a vignette measure. Our findings evidence current disparities in, as well pathways towards, improving MHL training for pre- and in-service educators, including pre-primary educators. Significant relationships observed between measures of MHL, and vignette discrimination accuracy suggest MHL training for educators may strengthen help-seeking pathways through the timely identification of students experiencing mental disorders and the judicious provision of mental health resources for these students.

Learning to descend stairs requires motor and cognitive capacities on the part of infants and opportunities for practice and assurance of safety offered by caregivers. The American Academy of Pediatrics prescribes the age strategy to teach toddlers to safely descend stairs but without much consideration for individual differences in infants' skills or caregivers' techniques. The purpose of this study was to observe the natural ways in which caregivers teach infants to descend stairs at home and the extent to which infants abide. Of particular interest was to examine the dynamic nature of caregivers' teaching and infants' learning over the session with attention to individual differences. Dyads (N = 59) were videorecorded on Zoom for 10 min interacting on stairs at home in the United States, Brazil, Canada, Italy, and Spain. Infants (n = 30 girls, 29 boys; 13-month-olds ± 1 week) were novice walkers (M = 2.04 months walking experience). Caregivers used a variety of teaching strategies and focused on "backing" and "scooting." Infants were more likely to heed caregivers' guidance when caregivers provided hands-on support and verbal encouragement suggesting infants were engaged and responsive to caregivers' overtures. Infants' walking experience predicted change in descent strategy over the session. Although infants did not show evidence of learning over the session, consistent caregiver instruction suggested caregivers were persistent, if not effective, teachers. Teaching and learning motor skills in a potentially risky task creates a unique opportunity for interaction, allowing infants and caregivers to learn from one another.

This study examines perceptions of the benefits and barriers to study abroad amongst undergraduate students studying at the Soltis Center for Research and Education in Costa Rica, in 2018 and 2019. A total of 49 students representing five different study abroad programs from three institutions participated in the study. Cost, personal obligations, and timing of the program were identified by all respondents as the most important barriers to student participation in a study abroad program. Results of a Q-sort suggests that perceived benefits varied by academic year of the student and their experience with study abroad, and other high impact learning experiences. Upper-year students, as well as those with previous travel experience, viewed study abroad as an opportunity to develop career-relevant skills, while lower-year students and those with less travel experience perceived broadening horizons and personal growth as the most important benefits. The transition in perceived benefits can be used to effectively structure study abroad within the undergraduate curriculum to maximize benefits for student learning.

Teaching management has undergone a paradigm shift in the 21st century, from content-based to competency-based. The changing pedagogical landscape has posed a significant challenge to Islamic schools since many still adhere to traditional content-based instruction. To eliminate learning barriers and embrace modern education, this qualitative study investigated teaching management strategies for Islamic Education and key challenges that teachers encountered in cultivating global citizenship for learners. Data were collected from interviews focus group discussion and teaching observations with twelve school administrators and twelve Islamic education teachers, who were purposively selected from twelve schools in southern Thailand. Qualitative content analysis with data organization and classification identified that the schools employed six teaching management strategies to maneuver Islamic Education: emphasizing individual differences, integrating information and communication technology, associating off-class experiences, bridging localness with internationalness, integrating Science, and considering modern evaluation. Furthermore, the results revealed that the attitudes of the Islamic-education teachers were largely attached to conventional teaching styles, relied on subject matters that are less relevant to the needs of the global society, and developmental processes remained significantly ambiguous. Hence, these three challenges were found to be the prime obstructing factors of teaching capacities and adaptability that hindered educational cultivation for 21stcentury global citizenship. This study proposes new instructional models for private Islamic schools to transform their teaching toward 21st-century education.

Social networks integrate adolescent daily life by configuring modes of socialisation, negotiation and self-representation through different practices that operate as subjectivation resources and condition the gender experience. The objective of this study is to explore the production of selfies and videos among adolescents from Puebla (Mexico) and Galicia (Spain) from a gender, territorial, and sociocultural perspective. A survey study was carried out using an online questionnaire designed ad hoc and applied to 6,654 adolescents (14-17 years), with different gender identities, from public secondary schools in Puebla and Galicia. The results show that the selfie is a more widespread practice among adolescents than video, with revealing differences in its production. Similarities are evident in the level of preparation and the motivations that lead to these practices. Gender differences are found in their production in terms of intentions, materialities, and body expression. The family's sociocultural level and the territory are visualised as realities that affect the production of these practices. The conclusions point to a transition of knowledge and meanings between the selfie and video and the relevance of analysing gender experience on social networks in light of the forms of power they exercise there.

The rapidly changing landscape of education necessitates that schools build the capacity to swiftly pivot to new modalities, curriculum, and operations models. Much of the onus for positively responding to these changes falls to teacher-leaders. In many schools, teacher leaders are untrained and designated by virtue of their seniority. The authors posit that differences exist in the leadership styles and behaviors of professional educators depending on their role, status, and professional learning journey. Findings from the present study affirm the existence of some of these differences and, thus, could inform future efforts to designate and train teachers for leadership roles based off of these attributes.

Snyder's hope theory depicts hope, through the frame of positive psychology, as a cognitive construct with the perceived sense of goal-directed, pathways, and agency thinking (Snyder et al., 1991). Hope levels have been measured in various countries; however, no research to date focused on Haitians. This study, conducted in Petit-Goâve, Haiti, addressed this gap by investigating hope, pathway, and agency levels derived from 135 Haitian-Kreyol adult literacy course participants. This manuscript reports scores of illiterate Haitians' hope levels utilizing Snyder's Adult Hope Dispositional Scale; the scores are explained by Snyder's hope theory taking Haitian cultural and social landscapes into account. Despite the challenging environment and illiterate conditions, Haitian participants reported just below average hope levels, average pathway levels, and low agency levels. These findings suggested this population garnered hope in their everyday lives, despite difficult obstacles.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of three different learning modes--online, blended, and face-to-face--on student course performance. Performance was measured by achievement (grades). This study compared student grades in classes taught using each of these delivery methods. This study was designed to serve as a foundation for evaluating student outcomes in open-admission courses that are components of the program for earning a Bachelor of Education degree in a multicultural educational institution.

Purpose: Shared reading provides preschool-age children with the opportunity to learn novel, low-frequency words. Abundant empirical evidence demonstrates that children can learn the meanings of such words during shared reading, referred to as "semantic learning." However, less is known about whether children learn the spellings of words during shared reading, referred to as "orthographic learning," and whether this learning is related to early word reading. The present study tested relations between individual differences in 4- to 6-year-old children's semantic and, critically, orthographic learning during shared reading and their early word reading skill. Method: In an adaptation of the self-teaching paradigm, children listened to a storybook about novel inventions referred to with nonword names. Children then completed orthographic and semantic choice tests, as well as standardized measures of early word reading and phonological awareness. Results: Individual differences in orthographic, but not semantic, learning during shared reading were related to early word reading, after controls for age and phonological awareness. Conclusions: This study provides a novel test of learning during shared reading, helping to specify the relation between orthographic and semantic learning and early word reading skill. These findings hold implications for theoretical perspectives on relations between learning during shared reading and early word reading, as well as implications for educational practice.

We conducted a systematic review of research involving K-12 students that examined associations among individual differences factors (e.g., working memory) and intertextual integration. We identified 25 studies published in 23 peer-reviewed journal articles and two dissertations/theses. These examined a wide range of individual difference factors, which we organized into four categories: (a) language and literacy, (b) cognition and metacognition, (c) knowledge and beliefs, and (d) motivation, emotion, and personality. We found large variation in the participants, tasks, and document types, and little systematic replication across studies. Nonetheless, results generally showed that variation in literacy, cognition, metacognition, knowledge, beliefs, and motivation are positively and moderately associated with intertextual integration. We discuss the limitations of this work and offer four recommendations for future research.

Lifelong education has proven to be a significant challenge in the policy arena. The combination of formal education and labor-centered institutions has pressed the development of different mechanisms to understand the role of human capital accumulation in socioeconomic mobility and organizational performance. While the narratives of lifelong education have primed labor and educational studies across developed economies, in the case of developing economies, those logics appear contested by development economics conditions. In this paper, I use the context of the expansion of the graduate educational market and its policy reforms to analyze how a developing economy copes with a change in the availability of a highly educated workforce. Using panel and pseudo-panel data, I examine the evolution of educational returns for the graduate workforce in Chile between 1990 and 2018, considering the differences between industries and public and private sectors. The results point out that there are no public-private differences and high heterogeneity across economic sectors. The policy- and individual-level consequences are discussed.

A growing body of evidence demonstrates that individual differences in declarative memory may be an important predictor of second language (L2) abilities. However, the evidence comes from studies using different declarative memory tasks that vary in their reliance on verbal abilities and task demands, which preclude estimating the size of the relationship between declarative memory and L2 learning. To address these concerns, we examined the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities within the same task while controlling for task demands and stimulus modality, to estimate the upper bound of the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory. Results indicate that when task demands and stimulus modality are controlled, verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities shared a medium-to-large amount of underlying variance. However, future studies should exercise caution in appraising associations between declarative memory abilities and L2 learning until a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms is achieved.