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The Gravity Model (GM), one of the most classic models adopted by the domain of social sciences from physics, has been widely used to study the interactions between social identities. Previous research that has used the Gravity Model to study the interactions among cities have mostly used a single variable, such as population or GDP, to represent a city, which does not provide a comprehensive depiction of a city’s influence. This paper develops a Synthesized Gravity Model (SGM) based on the traditional Gravity Model to study the evolution of the hierarchy of the Chinese urban system since the mid-1990s. Under this model, socioeconomic variables are synthesized and are represented by the Influential Factor, while the Function Distance is derived from a Network Analysis that is based on multiple transportation methods. As an improvement on the GM, the SGM is used to accurately establish and represent the nodal structure of China’s urban system, the evolution of its hierarchical structure, and the relationships that exist between the nodal structure and socioeconomic factors. The results based on the SGM indicate that China’s national urban system is characterized by the emergence of urban clusters with stronger inter-city interactions since the 1990s. However, the development among cities within certain urban clusters is not even, although the general pattern indicates a lessening inequality amongst cities. Spatially, while most cities at the top of the hierarchy are located in Eastern China, cities in the center and the west of the country are also gaining higher positions in the hierarchy over time. This paper is dedicated to improving the traditional GM in the applications of urban studies, while the system of Chinese cities is used to validate the SGM.

Based on the conclusions of the previous chapter, there are four main transformations in spatial-temporal distributions of urban ethnic minorities in China. The first is a change in the spatial-aggregation of ethnic minorities in the form of a periphery to core transition as urban minorities increasingly migrated from county-level cities to prefecture-level cities or above. The second is a decline in urban minority populations in the central region as a result of outward economic migration to cities in the east and west. This leads to the third transformed characteristic, which is the rapid growth of ethnic minorities in eastern city agglomerations. Finally, the last transformation is the rise in prominence of provincial capitals as a concentration of urban minorities in western China thanks to the implementation of the Western Development Strategy in 2000.

Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), there have been three major phases of urbanization: the Pre-Reform Phase (1949–1978), the Revival Phase (1978–1996), and the Transitional Phase (1996–present). This chapter introduces the context of Chinese urbanization and provides a detailed historical overview of urbanization in the PRC, starting with definitions of key features and concepts before discussing the ethnic minority experience in Contemporary China. The research objective and questions, as well as the conceptual frameworks, are presented at the end of this chapter.

This chapter begins with an exploration of the Chinese ethno-regional context, then contextualizes the distribution of ethnic minorities in cities by region and administrative level. It goes on to examine the variations in minority populations per city throughout the years, analyzing the impact urbanization had on ethnic minorities. Based on the Standard Deviational Ellipse (SDE) results, this chapter concludes that the changes experienced by all cities is the result of two major pulling powers from the southeastern coastal area and Northwestern China, as well as one inward shrinking force in Northeastern China.

espanolGentrificacion en el Sur Global: nuevos conocimientos de los estudios chinos Tras la introduccion del concepto "gentrificacion" por Ruth Glass en 1964, los geografos urbanos anglosajones han estudiado ampliamente el proceso y el fenomeno de gentrificacion. En los ultimos anos, los estudios de gentrificacion han movido mas alla del ambito academico anglosajon. Este documento tiene como objetivo revisar la etapa actual de los estudios de gentrificacion en ingles de China. Utilizando el caso de China, el documento sostiene que la gentrificacion puede generalizarse en un paradigma de aplicacion universal. Sin embargo, los retos que plantea el estudio de la gentrificacion en cualquier pais consisten en transferir y adaptar el amplio paradigma que podria captar las complejidades de las condiciones locales. Los academicos que estudian la gentrificacion en China han reconocido las diferencias locales y nacionales especificas de China, lo que les ha permitido establecer sus propias teorias. EnglishFollowing the introduction of the “gentrification” concept by Ruth Glass in 1964, Anglo-Saxon urban geographers have extensively studied the process and phenomenon of gentrification. In recent years, gentrification studies have moved beyond the Anglo-Saxon academic field. This paper aims to review the current stage of English-Language gentrification studies about China. Using the case of China, the paper argues that gentrification can be generalized to a universally applied paradigm. However, the challenges of studying gentrification in any country are to transfer and adapt the broad paradigm that could capture the complexities of local conditions. Scholars studying gentrification in China have recognized the local and national differences that are specific to China and have worked out to establish their own theories.

Green open space is an important part of the natural–social ecosystem, providing ecological services that maintain the healthy development of cities and society. Residents’ perceptions of these benefits are largely related to their social-economic background as well as their familiarity with the development of green open spaces in their neighborhoods. Understanding residents’ perceptions of green open space will contribute significantly to urban planning by providing practical information that facilitates residents’ needs. Using the urban development zone (UDZ) of Wuhan, this study aims to understand residents’ preference toward green open space and their perceptions of ecological services and improvement, with the focus on the linking between social factors, preference, and views. In this study, data are collected through online questionnaire surveys and interviews. The results demonstrate how respondents’ views vary and which social factors significantly relate to them. Significant changes in natural space changes are reflected in the public’s perception of the ecological functions of these spaces. Responses to improving green open space reflect the residents’ pursuit of natural affinity and practicality. We conclude that it is better to enhance public involvement by providing residents’ views, which helps to recognize actual needs in long-term green open space planning.

China’s economic reforms of 1978, which led to the country’s transition from a centrally planned to a market-oriented economy, ushered in a phase of accelerated urbanization. Influenced by the economic transition and taking advantage of its privileged geographic and historic position, Tianjin has seen dramatic changes in its social landscape during the last three decades. Given this context, this study aims at understanding the different urban socio-spatial patterns of Tianjin and their mechanisms in three distinctive economic contexts by adapting both statistical and spatial approaches. Due to increasing population mobility caused by the economic reforms, the urban social landscape of Tianjin has become increasingly multifaceted, characterized by a “one axis, two nuclei” urban morphology. The rise of the Binhai New Area (TBNA) in the southeast is creating a dual-core urban social structure in Tianjin, with its traditional Urban Core located in the center of the city. In terms of the Urban Core’s expansion and population movements southeast toward the TBNA, an asymmetric suburbanization process is evident in Tianjin. Meanwhile, an additional population shift toward Beijing in the northwest is significant during 2000–2010, illustrating the changing relationship between these two neighboring municipalities. By integrating itself with Beijing, Tianjin has not only recovered from under Beijing’s shadow during the centrally planned economy period, but is also benefitting from Beijing in order to flourish.

La ville caribéenne constitue un objet singulier ; elle recouvre des réalités contrastées à travers des territoires composites, denses et complexes. Ces dynamiques urbaines s’imposent dans des espaces insulaires désorganisés marqués par des logiques économiques extraverties qui s’inscrivent dans l’histoire séculaire des économies de plantation. Les territoires urbains, désarticulés, fragmentés, juxtaposent des îlots de richesse et de vastes poches de pauvreté et d’exclusion.Soulignant la richesse et la complexité de ce champ d’investigation qui demeure méconnu, l’objectif de la présente réflexion est de poser des éléments d’une grille de lecture et des pistes d’études pour investir la ville caribéenne. The Caribbean City is a singular object; it covers contrasting realities through composite, dense and complex territories. These urban dynamics are imposed in the disorganized spaces inserted marked by extroverted economic logics that are part of the secular history of plantation economies. Urban territories, disjointed, fragmented, juxtapose islands of wealth and pockets of poverty and exclusion.Highlighting the richness and the complexity of this field of investigation which is little studied, it is also aimed to provide a functional guide for studying the Caribbean’s city. La ciudad del Caribe es un objeto singular; Abarca realidades contrastantes a través de territorios compuestos, densos y complejos. Estas dinámicas urbanas se imponen en los espacios desorganizados insertos marcados por lógicas económicas extrovertidas que son parte de la historia secular de las economías de plantación. Territorios urbanos, inconexos, fragmentados, yuxtaponen los bolsillos de la riqueza y los bolsillos de la pobreza y la exclusión.Destacando la riqueza y la complejidad de este campo de investigador que sigue siendo el desconocido, el objetivo de la reflexión es plantear elementos de una grilla de lectura y pistas de estudios para invertir la ciudad caribeña.

The Caribbean City is a singular object; it covers contrasting realities through composite, dense and complex territories. These urban dynamics are imposed in the disorganized spaces inserted marked by extroverted economic logics that are part of the secular history of plantation economies. Urban territories, disjointed, fragmented, juxtapose islands of wealth and pockets of poverty and exclusion.Highlighting the richness and the complexity of this field of investigation which is little studied, it is also aimed to provide a functional guide for studying the Caribbean’s city. La ville caribéenne constitue un objet singulier ; elle recouvre des réalités contrastées à travers des territoires composites, denses et complexes. Ces dynamiques urbaines s’imposent dans des espaces insulaires désorganisés marqués par des logiques économiques extraverties qui s’inscrivent dans l’histoire séculaire des économies de plantation. Les territoires urbains, désarticulés, fragmentés, juxtaposent des îlots de richesse et de vastes poches de pauvreté et d’exclusion.Soulignant la richesse et la complexité de ce champ d’investigation qui demeure méconnu, l’objectif de la présente réflexion est de poser des éléments d’une grille de lecture et des pistes d’études pour investir la ville caribéenne. La ciudad del Caribe es un objeto singular; Abarca realidades contrastantes a través de territorios compuestos, densos y complejos. Estas dinámicas urbanas se imponen en los espacios desorganizados insertos marcados por lógicas económicas extrovertidas que son parte de la historia secular de las economías de plantación. Territorios urbanos, inconexos, fragmentados, yuxtaponen los bolsillos de la riqueza y los bolsillos de la pobreza y la exclusión.Destacando la riqueza y la complejidad de este campo de investigador que sigue siendo el desconocido, el objetivo de la reflexión es plantear elementos de una grilla de lectura y pistas de estudios para invertir la ciudad caribeña.

Rapid urbanization and industrialization have placed significant pressure on ecological systems in China. This study investigates a network of local environmental organizations working to combat pollution in Nanjing’s Qinhuai River. Research in adaptive governance has pointed to the importance of such nonstate actors in contributing to responsive management of ecosystems. However, these actors are embedded in larger political contexts that constrain their ability to exchange information and contribute to improved ecosystem governance. A network approach is used to provide empirical detail of relationships among nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and government while applying theory from Chinese politics to explain barriers and opportunities to adaptive governance. The results reveal the dominant corporatist relationship between the state and a single designated NGO, while also uncovering a separate group of information producing NGOs. Studies in adaptive governance can apply similar approaches to create a deeper interdisciplinary understanding of underlying political structures influencing information sharing and collaboration.

The international role and prestige of China have undoubtedly changed since Canada established official diplomatic ties with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1970. Since the late 1970s, it has undergone considerable economic growth, allowing it to become the second largest economic power in the world.

This paper contributes to the analysis of the mobility system through strategic sites represented by tourist locations, mirrors of globalisation. Tourist locations exist merely through human flows: varied and complex flows between migrations and tourism. In the context of North-South border control, emerging tourist locations situated at the margins of the richest regions sometimes represent an opportunity to bypass the regional borders. Through the analysis of mobility in the Caribbean area, the previous categories used to describe the types of mobility demonstrate their limits when faced with the complexity of flows and growing interactions. Subsequently, a microanalysis of Martinique Island enables us to reflect upon the social aspects of this mobility and to ponder on the issues concerning the old and new political and socio-spatial borders. Cet article contribue à analyser le système des mobilités à travers des lieux stratégiques que sont les places touristiques, miroirs de la mondialisation. Les places touristiques n’existent qu’à travers les flux des hommes, flux variés et complexes entre migrations et tourisme. Dans le contexte de contrôle des frontières Nord-Sud, les lieux touristiques émergents, situés sur les marges des régions les plus riches, représentent parfois une opportunité pour contourner les frontières régionales. A travers l’analyse des mobilités dans l’espace caraïbe, les anciennes catégories utilisées pour décrire les types de déplacements montrent leurs limites face à la complexification des flux et les interactions croissantes. Ensuite, une microanalyse à l’échelle de l’île de la Martinique permet d’ouvrir une réflexion sur les aspects sociétaux de ces mobilités et de s’interroger sur les enjeux autour des frontières, nouvelles et anciennes, politiques et socio-spatiales.