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Large-scale structure surveys measure the shape and position of millions of galaxies in order to constrain the cosmological model with high precision. The resulting large data volume poses a challenge for the analysis of the data, from the estimation of photometric redshifts to the calibration of shape measurements. We present GalSBI, a model for the galaxy population, to address these challenges. This phenomenological model is constrained by observational data using simulation-based inference (SBI). The $\texttt{galsbi}$ Python package provides an easy interface to generate catalogs of galaxies based on the GalSBI model, including their photometric properties, and to simulate realistic images of these galaxies using the $\texttt{UFig}$ package., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures, submitted to JOSS

With the rise of simulation-based inference (SBI) methods, simulations need to be fast as well as realistic. $\texttt{UFig v1}$ is a public Python package that generates simulated astronomical images with exceptional speed - taking approximately the same time as source extraction. This makes it particularly well-suited for simulation-based inference (SBI) methods where computational efficiency is crucial. To render an image, $\texttt{UFig}$ requires a galaxy catalog and a description of the point spread function (PSF). It can also add background noise, sample stars using the Besan\c{c}on model of the Milky Way, and run $\texttt{SExtractor}$ to extract sources from the rendered image. The extracted sources can be matched to the intrinsic catalog, flagged based on $\texttt{SExtractor}$ output and survey masks, and emulators can be used to bypass the image simulation and extraction steps. A first version of $\texttt{UFig}$ was presented in Berg\'e et al. (2013) and the software has since been used and further developed in a variety of forward modelling applications., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures, submitted to JOSS

The combination of different cosmological probes offers stringent tests of the $\Lambda$CDM model and enhanced control of systematics. For this purpose, we present an extension of the lightcone generator UFalcon first introduced in Sgier et al. 2019 (arXiv:1801.05745), enabling the simulation of a self-consistent set of maps for different cosmological probes. Each realization is generated from the same underlying simulated density field, and contains full-sky maps of different probes, namely weak lensing shear, galaxy overdensity including RSD, CMB lensing, and CMB temperature anisotropies from the ISW effect. The lightcone generation performed by UFalcon is parallelized and based on the replication of a large periodic volume simulated with the GPU-accelerated $N$-Body code PkdGrav3. The post-processing to construct the lightcones requires only a runtime of about 1 walltime-hour corresponding to about 100 CPU-hours. We use a randomization procedure to increase the number of quasi-independent full-sky UFalcon map-realizations, which enables us to compute an accurate multi-probe covariance matrix. Using this framework, we forecast cosmological parameter constraints by performing a multi-probe likelihood analysis for a combination of simulated future stage-IV-like surveys. We find that the inclusion of the cross-correlations between the probes significantly increases the information gain in the parameter constraints. We also find that the use of a non-Gaussian covariance matrix is increasingly important, as more probes and cross-correlation power spectra are included. A version of the UFalcon package currently including weak gravitational lensing is publicly available., Comment: 49 pages, 24 pictures, The UFalcon weak lensing package is available here: $\href{https://cosmology.ethz.ch/research/software-lab/UFalcon.html}{https://cosmology.ethz.ch/research/software-lab/UFalcon.html}$

For the next generation of spectroscopic galaxy surveys, it is important to forecast their performances and to accurately interpret their large data sets. For this purpose, it is necessary to consistently simulate different populations of galaxies, in particular Emission Line Galaxies (ELGs), less used in the past for cosmological purposes. In this work, we further the forward modeling approach presented in Fagioli et al. 2018, by extending the spectra simulator Uspec to model galaxies of different kinds with improved parameters from Tortorelli et al. 2020. Furthermore, we improve the modeling of the selection function by using the image simulator Ufig. We apply this to the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), and simulate $\sim157,000$ multi-band images. We pre-process and analyse them to apply cuts for target selection, and finally simulate SDSS/BOSS DR14 galaxy spectra. We compute photometric, astrometric and spectroscopic properties for red and blue, real and simulated galaxies, finding very good agreement. We compare the statistical properties of the samples by decomposing them with Principal Component Analysis (PCA). We find very good agreement for red galaxies and a good, but less pronounced one, for blue galaxies, as expected given the known difficulty of simulating those. Finally, we derive stellar population properties, mass-to-light ratios, ages and metallicities, for all samples, finding again very good agreement. This shows how this method can be used not only to forecast cosmology surveys, but it is also able to provide insights into studies of galaxy formation and evolution., Comment: 28 pages, 10 figures, accepted for publication in JCAP

The galaxy Luminosity Function (LF) is a key observable for galaxy formation, evolution studies and for cosmology. In this work, we propose a novel technique to forward model wide-field broad-band galaxy surveys using the fast image simulator UFig and measure the LF of galaxies in the B-band. We use Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) to constrain the galaxy population model parameters of the simulations and match data from CFHTLS. We define a number of distance metrics between the simulated and the survey data. By exploring the parameter space of the galaxy population model through ABC to find the set of parameters that minimize these distance metrics, we obtain constraints on the LFs of blue and red galaxies as a function of redshift. We find that $\mathrm{M^*}$ fades by $\Delta \mathrm{M}^*_{\mathrm{0.1-1.0,b}} = 0.68 \pm 0.52$ and $\Delta \mathrm{M}^*_{\mathrm{0.1-1.0,r}} = 0.54 \pm 0.48$ magnitudes between redshift $\mathrm{z = 1}$ and $\mathrm{z = 0.1}$ for blue and red galaxies, respectively. We also find that $\phi^*$ for blue galaxies stays roughly constant between redshift $\mathrm{z = 0.1}$ and $\mathrm{z=1}$, while for red galaxies it decreases by $\sim 35\%$. We compare our results to other measurements, finding good agreement at all redshifts, for both blue and red galaxies. To further test our results, we compare the redshift distributions for survey and simulated data. We use the spectroscopic redshift distribution from the VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey (VIPERS) and we apply the same selection in colours and magnitudes on our simulations. We find a good agreement between the survey and the simulated redshift distributions. We provide best-fit values and uncertainties for the parameters of the LF. This work offers excellent prospects for measuring other galaxy population properties as a function of redshift using ABC., Comment: Accepted for publication in JCAP, 44 pages, 20 figures, 4 appendices

Weak gravitational lensing is a powerful probe of the dark sector, once measurement systematic errors can be controlled. In Refregier & Amara (2014), a calibration method based on forward modeling, called MCCL, was proposed. This relies on fast image simulations (e.g., UFig; Berge et al. 2013) that capture the key features of galaxy populations and measurement effects. The MCCL approach has been used in Herbel et al. (2017) to determine the redshift distribution of cosmological galaxy samples and, in the process, the authors derived a model for the galaxy population mainly based on broad-band photometry. Here, we test this model by forward modeling the 40 narrow-band photometry given by the novel PAU Survey (PAUS). For this purpose, we apply the same forced photometric pipeline on data and simulations using Source Extractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996). The image simulation scheme performance is assessed at the image and at the catalogues level. We find good agreement for the distribution of pixel values, the magnitudes, in the magnitude-size relation and the interband correlations. A principal component analysis is then performed, in order to derive a global comparison of the narrow-band photometry between the data and the simulations. We use a `mixing' matrix to quantify the agreement between the observed and simulated sets of Principal Components (PCs). We find good agreement, especially for the first three most significant PCs. We also compare the coefficients of the PCs decomposition. While there are slight differences for some coefficients, we find that the distributions are in good agreement. Together, our results show that the galaxy population model derived from broad-band photometry is in good overall agreement with the PAUS data. This offers good prospect for incorporating spectral information to the galaxy model by adjusting it to the PAUS narrow-band data using forward modeling., Comment: Submitted to JCAP, 28 pages, 15 figures, 3 appendices

Galaxy spectra are essential to probe the spatial distribution of galaxies in our Universe. To better interpret current and future spectroscopic galaxy redshift surveys, it is important to be able to simulate these data sets. We describe Uspec, a forward modeling tool to generate galaxy spectra taking into account some intrinsic galaxy properties as well as instrumental responses of a given telescope. The model for the intrinsic properties of the galaxy population, i.e., the luminosity functions, and size and spectral coefficients distribu- tions, was developed in an earlier work for broad-band imaging surveys [1], and we now aim to test the model further using spectroscopic data. We apply Uspec to the SDSS/CMASS sample of Luminous Red Galaxies (LRGs). We construct selection cuts that match those used to build this LRG sample, which we then apply to data and simulations in the same way. The resulting real and simulated average spectra show a good statistical agreement overall, with residual differences likely coming from a bluer galaxy population of the simulated sam- ple. We also do not explore the impact of non-solar element ratios in our simulations. For a quantitative comparison, we perform Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the sets of spectra. By comparing the PCs constructed from simulations and data, we find good agree- ment for all components. The distributions of the eigencoefficients also show an appreciable overlap. We are therefore able to properly simulate the LRG sample taking into account the SDSS/BOSS instrumental responses. The differences between the two samples can be ascribed to the intrinsic properties of the simulated galaxy population, which can be reduced by further improvements of our modelling method in the future. We discuss how these results can be useful for the forward modeling of upcoming large spectroscopic surveys., Comment: 32 pages, 14 figures, accepted by JCAP

Modeling the Point Spread Function (PSF) of wide-field surveys is vital for many astrophysical applications and cosmological probes including weak gravitational lensing. The PSF smears the image of any recorded object and therefore needs to be taken into account when inferring properties of galaxies from astronomical images. In the case of cosmic shear, the PSF is one of the dominant sources of systematic errors and must be treated carefully to avoid biases in cosmological parameters. Recently, forward modeling approaches to calibrate shear measurements within the Monte-Carlo Control Loops ($MCCL$) framework have been developed. These methods typically require simulating a large amount of wide-field images, thus, the simulations need to be very fast yet have realistic properties in key features such as the PSF pattern. Hence, such forward modeling approaches require a very flexible PSF model, which is quick to evaluate and whose parameters can be estimated reliably from survey data. We present a PSF model that meets these requirements based on a fast deep-learning method to estimate its free parameters. We demonstrate our approach on publicly available SDSS data. We extract the most important features of the SDSS sample via principal component analysis. Next, we construct our model based on perturbations of a fixed base profile, ensuring that it captures these features. We then train a Convolutional Neural Network to estimate the free parameters of the model from noisy images of the PSF. This allows us to render a model image of each star, which we compare to the SDSS stars to evaluate the performance of our method. We find that our approach is able to accurately reproduce the SDSS PSF at the pixel level, which, due to the speed of both the model evaluation and the parameter estimation, offers good prospects for incorporating our method into the $MCCL$ framework., Comment: 25 pages, 8 figures, 1 table

Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) is a method to obtain a posterior distribution without a likelihood function, using simulations and a set of distance metrics. For that reason, it has recently been gaining popularity as an analysis tool in cosmology and astrophysics. Its drawback, however, is a slow convergence rate. We propose a novel method, which we call qABC, to accelerate ABC with Quantile Regression. In this method, we create a model of quantiles of distance measure as a function of input parameters. This model is trained on a small number of simulations and estimates which regions of the prior space are likely to be accepted into the posterior. Other regions are then immediately rejected. This procedure is then repeated as more simulations are available. We apply it to the practical problem of estimation of redshift distribution of cosmological samples, using forward modelling developed in previous work. The qABC method converges to nearly same posterior as the basic ABC. It uses, however, only 20\% of the number of simulations compared to basic ABC, achieving a fivefold gain in execution time for our problem. For other problems the acceleration rate may vary; it depends on how close the prior is to the final posterior. We discuss possible improvements and extensions to this method., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures, prepared for submission to JCAP

Weak Gravitational Lensing is a powerful probe of the dark sector of the Universe. One of the main challenges for this technique is the treatment of systematics in the measurement of cosmic shear from galaxy shapes. In an earlier work, Refregier & Amara (2014) have proposed the Monte Carlo Control Loops (MCCL) to overcome these effects using a forward modeling approach. We focus here on one of the control loops in this method, the task of which is the calibration of the shear measurement. For this purpose, we first consider the requirements on the shear systematics for a given survey and propagate them to different systematics terms. We use two one-point statistics to calibrate the shear measurement and six further one-point statistics as diagnostics. We also propagate the systematics levels that we estimate from the one-point functions to the two-point functions for the different systematic error sources. This allows us to assess the consistency between the systematics levels measured in different ways. To test the method, we construct synthetic sky surveys with an area of 1,700 deg$^2$. With some simplifying assumptions, we are able to meet the requirements on the shear calibration for this survey configuration. Furthermore, we account for the total residual shear systematics in terms of the contributing sources. We discuss how this MCCL framework can be applied to current and future weak lensing surveys., Comment: 23 pages, 4 figures, prepared for submission to JCAP

Determining the redshift distribution $n(z)$ of galaxy samples is essential for several cosmological probes including weak lensing. For imaging surveys, this is usually done using photometric redshifts estimated on an object-by-object basis. We present a new approach for directly measuring the global $n(z)$ of cosmological galaxy samples, including uncertainties, using forward modeling. Our method relies on image simulations produced using UFig (Ultra Fast Image Generator) and on ABC (Approximate Bayesian Computation) within the $MCCL$ (Monte-Carlo Control Loops) framework. The galaxy population is modeled using parametric forms for the luminosity functions, spectral energy distributions, sizes and radial profiles of both blue and red galaxies. We apply exactly the same analysis to the real data and to the simulated images, which also include instrumental and observational effects. By adjusting the parameters of the simulations, we derive a set of acceptable models that are statistically consistent with the data. We then apply the same cuts to the simulations that were used to construct the target galaxy sample in the real data. The redshifts of the galaxies in the resulting simulated samples yield a set of $n(z)$ distributions for the acceptable models. We demonstrate the method by determining $n(z)$ for a cosmic shear like galaxy sample from the 4-band Subaru Suprime-Cam data in the COSMOS field. We also complement this imaging data with a spectroscopic calibration sample from the VVDS survey. We compare our resulting posterior $n(z)$ distributions to the one derived from photometric redshifts estimated using 36 photometric bands in COSMOS and find good agreement. This offers good prospects for applying our approach to current and future large imaging surveys., Comment: 26 pages, 10 figures