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Civilisations including ancient ones, have shaped the global ecosystems in many ways through a co-evolution of landscapes and humans. However, the cultural legacies of ancient and lost civilisations are seldom considered in conservation. Here using a continental-scale dataset containing over 1,000 data records on the localities, land cover, protection status and cultural values related to ancient steppic burial mounds (so-called ‘kurgans’), we evaluated how these iconic and widespread landmarks can contribute to grassland conservation in the Eurasian steppes, which is one of the most endangered biomes on Earth. By using Bayesian logistic generalized regressions and proportional odds logistic regressions, we aimed to reveal the potential of mounds in preserving grasslands considering landscapes with different levels of land use transformation. We also compared the conservation potential of mounds situated inside and outside protected areas and assessed whether the presence of cultural, historical or spiritual values support the maintenance of grasslands on them. We revealed that kurgans have enormous importance in preserving grasslands in transformed landscapes outside protected areas, where they can act as habitat islands, and provide an additional pillar for conservation by contributing to habitat conservation and improvement of habitat connectivity. We found that besides their steep slopes hindering ploughing, the existence of cultural, historical or religious values could almost double the chance for grassland occurrence on kurgans due to the related extensive land use and the respect of local communities. As the estimated number of steppic mounds is about 600,000 and also similar historical features exist in all continents, our results can be upscaled to a global level. Our results also suggest that an integrative socio-ecological approach in conservation might support the positive synergistic effects of conservational, landscape and cultural values.

We present the first ancient DNA data from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of Mesopotamia (Southeastern Turkey and Northern Iraq), Cyprus, and the Northwestern Zagros, along with the first data from Neolithic Armenia. We show that these and neighboring populations were formed through admixture of pre-Neolithic sources related to Anatolian, Caucasus, and Levantine hunter-gatherers, forming a Neolithic continuum of ancestry mirroring the geography of West Asia. By analyzing Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic populations of Anatolia, we show that the former were derived from admixture between Mesopotamian-related and local Epipaleolithic-related sources, but the latter experienced additional Levantine-related gene flow, thus documenting at least two pulses of migration from the Fertile Crescent heartland to the early farmers of Anatolia., National Institutes of Health [GM100233, HG012287]; John Templeton Foundation [61220]; Allen Discovery Center program; Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group advised program of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The newly reported dataset is described in detail in an accompanying Research Article, where we also acknowledge the funders who supported dataset generation (12). Analysis of data was supported by the National Institutes of Health (GM100233 and HG012287), the John Templeton Foundation (grant 61220), a private gift from Jean-Francois Clin, the Allen Discovery Center program, a Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group advised program of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (D.R.).

Literary and archaeological sources have preserved a rich history of Southern Europe and West Asia since the Bronze Age that can be complemented by genetics. Mycenaean period elites in Greece did not differ from the general population and included both people with some steppe ancestry and others, like the Griffin Warrior, without it. Similarly, people in the central area of the Urartian Kingdom around Lake Van lacked the steppe ancestry characteristic of the kingdom's northern provinces. Anatolia exhibited extraordinary continuity down to the Roman and Byzantine periods, with its people serving as the demographic core of much of the Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. During medieval times, migrations associated with Slavic and Turkic speakers profoundly affected the region., National Institutes of Health [GM100233, HG012287]; John Templeton Foundation [61220]; Allen Discovery Center program; Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group advised program of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The newly reported dataset is described in detail in an accompanying manuscript, where we also acknowledge the funders who supported dataset generation (1). Analysis of data was supported by the National Institutes of Health (GM100233 and HG012287), the John Templeton Foundation (grant 61220), a private gift from Jean-Francois Clin, the Allen Discovery Center program, a Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group advised program of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (to D.R.).

In the present work, we report on the analysis of archaeological metal artefacts from Late Bronze Age, performed by means of Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS). The experiment was carried out at ambient air and at 1064 nm of a Nd:YAG laser with pulse durations of 10 ns and energy of 10 mJ. The analytical information obtained by LIBS spectra was used for qualitative determination of the elements in the material used for manufacturing of the investigated objects. Quantitative estimation of the elemental concentration of tin and lead in the bulk of the samples was done after generating calibration curves for a set of four standard samples with a wide range of tin and lead concentrations and with similar matrix composition. The preliminary results of the qualitative and the quantitative analyses gave indications about the manufacturing process of the investigated objects and for their provenance as well.

This chapter introduces the topography, climate, environment, and demographic circumstances of the Yambol province in southeast Bulgaria. It then focuses on the two Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) study areas there. The Yambol province is characterised by the alluvial deposits of the Middle Tundzha River catchment, which offer accessible, fertile, and well-watered soils for agriculture. Prominent rock outcrops punctuate the otherwise flat to rolling landscape, offering stone resources and defensible locations. The population of the region is concentrated in Yambol city, the regional capital, with the rest dispersed in villages and rural settlements across the Thracian Plain.

This chapter introduces the topography, climate, environment, and demography of the Kazanlak Valley and the surrounding Balkan Mountains in central Bulgaria, one of the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP)study areas. The Kazanlak Valley is an intermontane valley, lying between the Sredna Gora to the south and the Stara Planina to the north. The dominant feature of the valley is the Tundzha River, which has been dammed near Kazanlak to produce the Koprinka Reservoir. The valley has a warm, humid, continental climate, with adequate water. The fertility of soils varies, supporting perennial and annual agriculture in some areas, forest and pastureland in others.

The survey methods used by the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) in both the Kazanlak and the Yambol study areas included intensive, extensive, and `adverse terrain' survey. TRAP adopted this combination of methods to accurately and systematically document survey coverage across variable terrain. More specifically, these methods allowed us to survey a contiguous area, document surface distributions of archaeological material, and monitor survey intensity despite changing land cover and accessibility. A `site record' was produced immediately in the field for readily identifiable features such as forts or burial mounds. Surface distributions of artefacts were interpreted into `sites' post-facto with the help of GIS and pottery analysis. Spatial coverage of survey teams was documented digitally in the field, while associated environmental and archaeological data were recorded on paper forms for daily digitisation.

This chapter is a summary of the results of two seasons of field survey by the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP), one in the Elhovo study area and the other in the Dodoparon study area of the Yambol province. The survey covered a total of 37 sq km, mostly in intensive and extensive mode. The archaeological residues include 24 surface concentrations, 52 burial mounds, a previously known fortress of Dodoparon, and two previously known prehistoric tells. The chapter focuses on the morphological features and classification of the surface concentrations and burial mounds, as well as preservation and recovery rates. Recovery rates of surface concentrations in the Yambol province seem independent of survey strategy, being consistently similar to the expected rate. While the number of concentrations per sq km in Yambol is lower than in Kazanlak, scatters are larger and higher density. Given the lack of background scatter, concentrations are easy to detect, diminishing the difference between high and low intensity approaches. Yambol's burial mound density of 1.4 mounds per sq km is much lower than in Kazanlak; the mound size distribution, however, corresponds well to the Kazanlak dataset if the Gorno Sahrane necropolis is excluded from the latter.

This chapter presents the results of three seasons of pedestrian surface survey in the Kazanlak study area conducted by the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP), covering an area of just under 86 sq km. Survey strategies were applied adaptively depending on ground visibility, and survey efficiency increased during each season. Archaeological remains included 82 surface artefact concentrations and 773 burial mounds. The sizes of artefact concentrations show the dominance of small, textless 1 ha examples. The recovery rate of nearly one artefact concentration per sq km indicates the high survey productivity of the Kazanlak study area, despite the adverse effect of post-depositional processes on the valley floor. Direct comparison of recovery rates with other studies is difficult due to the lack of compatible datasets from other parts of Bulgaria. The density of burial mounds is high compared to parallels in Lydia, and is exceeded only by Bronze Age mound necropoleis of Bahrain and similar in Eurasia. The size profile of the burial mounds in Kazanlak favours mounds less than 1 m high due to a local anomaly, the Gorno Sahrane necropolis, consisting of nearly 400 small mounds. The data also shows that the preservation of mounds is affected not only by mound size, but also surrounding land use, with mounds in pasturelands best preserved

The three mounds located at the mortuary site of Boyanovo on a limestone outcrop above the Thracian Plain were surveyed by the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) in 2009. It is located at the convergence of the southeastern Balkans and the Eurasian steppe and border-steppe regions. Across these geographical regions and beyond, the Bronze Age was a period of flux, with a tendency toward increased mobility for portions of communities or entire groups. The increasing economic dependence of humans upon their domestic animals in the Bronze Age and subsequent Iron Age is reflected in the archaeological evidence for a shift toward domesticated animal remains over wild or agricultural resources. The location, chronology, and burial context of the human remains recovered from the mortuary site of Boyanovo link these individuals with contemporary pastoral trends. In this study, stable isotope analysis of collagen extracted from the bones of 14 individuals is applied to investigate dietary patterns within the Boyanovo population. Data from this study are compared to other archaeological communities with palaeodietary habits including diets high in freshwater fish, terrestrial domesticates (plants and animals), and millet. This analysis elucidates a critical aspect of daily life, subsistence, complementing the mortuary information available from the archaeology of the site. The results indicate that humans interred at Boyanovo relied upon terrestrial fauna for their dietary protein. Carbon stable isotope values of the population reflect a mixed C3-C4 diet, either from regular, direct consumption of C4 plants (especially millet) or the frequent consumption of animals grazed or foddered on a high-C4 diet.

This chapter presents the results of spatial analysis conducted on a surface survey data from the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) in the Kazanlak Valley. It characterises the dynamics of settlement patternsin the valley and reviews factors contributing to them. Diachronic variation in the spatial distribution of human activities in the Kazanlak Valley indicates that both natural and social drivers shaped the locational preferences of past communities within this intermontane landscape. In most periods, site distributions depart from spatial randomness. In the long term, site numbers periodically grow and decline, pointing to changing demographic trends and habitation preferences. Prehistoric settlement patterns seem governed by environmental and economic factors, while socio-political circumstances dominate historical periods. Site dispersal and aggregation are correlated with shifts of political autonomy from local communities to supra-regional polities and vice versa. Given the limitations of survey data and the diachronic approach, the analysis provides a bird's-eye view of developments in Kazanlak. These results provide context for future explorations of specific periods and sites at a finer scale using other approaches.

This Final Report is the principal outcome of Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) fieldwork conducted between 2009 and 2011, as well as associated studies that continued through 2015. Research focused on two study areas: the Kazanlak Valley and the Thracian Plain south of Yambol. TRAP was the first international, multidisciplinary, diachronic landscape archaeology project of its kind in Bulgaria. This chapter contextualises TRAP's research program by telling the story of the project, including both successes and challenges. Here, we recount how the diverse investigators came to undertake a large-scale field project in Bulgaria, how the study areas and research approaches were selected, and how project objectives evolved. We also describe how the project was structured and operated. Project leaders strove to use best practices from landscape archaeology as it is practiced elsewhere in the Mediterranean, and introduced new digital approaches to field recording. Project aims ranged from the documentation of archaeological heritage for cultural heritage management to the investigation of settlement patterns and their evolution in historical and environmental context. Key objectives were met. The project team, including over 100 students, volunteers, and other participants, covered over 100 sq km in pedestrian survey, and conducted trial excavations, palaeoenvironmental research, and related investigations over five field seasons. Key outcomes include a 30,000-year palaeoecological record and an inventory of over 100 flat sites and 800 burial mounds, allowing a re-evaluation of long-term changes in subsistence strategies and social organisation in Thrace.

This chapter discusses the results of spatial analysis conducted on surface survey data from the Yambol study areas of the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP). In the rolling landscape of the Middle Tundzha River watershed, tributary valleys serve as zones of settlement, contributing to east-west settlement systems. Elevated ridges between the tributary valleys host mortuary landscapes. These linear systems pose a challenge to quantified assessment of aggregation and dispersal due to their single dimension, and so this study focuses on rates of growth, site spacing, and hierarchy. Given the ubiquitous presence of productive soils in the tributary valleys and the lack of topographic obstacles, economic and social factors emerge as the main drivers of settlement. Historical settlement dynamics change in response to internal and external socio-economic stimuli. An Early Iron Age rise in site counts is similar to that seen in Kazanlak. After the number of sites decline in the Late Iron Age, the Roman period sees the apex of settlement. Functional differentiation is attested in stratified urban and rural sites, while surface artefacts signal that local communities engaged in crafts and commerce. After Roman-era growth abates, settlements decline during the Late Antique and Early Byzantine period. Recovery during the Mediaeval period sees a different settlement pattern established, where only a few permanent sites sit amidst an agricultural hinterland. During the Ottoman periodhabitations relocate to their modern placement outside of the study areas.

Functional ambiguity and chronological coarseness are well-known limitations of survey data. These issues contribute to the problem of contemporaneity and hinder synchronic settlement analysis. In this chapter, the impact of functional and temporal uncertainty in the Kazanlak dataset produced by the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) is explored. Four datasets are derived from the Kazanlak surface survey data by excluding uncertainty along two axes, functional and chronological. These datasets are then subjected to Dewar's probabilistic model to estimate the number of contemporary settlements per period. The number of contemporaneously occupied sites in six chronological periods between the Late Bronze Age and Early Byzantine period (1600 BC–AD 1000) are estimated. Dewar's model indicates that occupation span of sites varied over time. Of particular interest is the dominance of short-term sites during the Late Iron Age, pointing to instability in the Kazanlak Valley, later replaced with stability and settlement growth during the Roman period. This assessment further reveals that neither chronological nor functional uncertainty has a significant impact on the analysis of settlement dynamics. The subset of chronologically certain sites produces slightly higher estimates of contemporary settlements and longer estimates of average duration, but the differences remain within one standard deviation.

Excavations during autumn of 2010 at the fortified hilltop settlement of Dodoparon complemented the Tundzha Regional Archaeology Project (TRAP) survey campaign in the Yambol province. Three trenches provided information about the third to sixth century AD at this regional centre. Thick fortification walls enclosing 4 ha revealed the defensive character of the site, while the presence of slag indicated metal processing. A depot of 55 vessels found inside a small, centrally located structure attest to the storage of consumption-ready foodstuffs. A variety of metal finds, including a coin hoard hidden in the storage structure, implied a rushed abandonment of the site at the end of the sixth century AD, consistent with historical records of settlement evolution in the Middle Tundzha River catchment. Archaeobotanical results from the site provided evidence for agriculture and diet in the Roman period, identifying cereal grains, legumes, fodder, and weeds. Of interest was the preponderance of millet, which corroborates written evidence concerning the typical diet in ancient Thrace, and is consistent with stable isotope analysis of skeletal remains from Boyanovo presented in Chapter 17.