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The processes that shape Earth’s surface are constantly in flux. Continuous movements of soil and water and growth of ecosystems are what create the perfect stillness in Ansel Adam’s landscapes. In this dissertation, we investigate how a landscape responds to changes in the world around it. The tectonic uplift of Puerto Rico continues to shape the critical zone of the Luquillo Mountains today. We find that it has modified patterns of groundwater emergence, such that the river network is entrenching into ridgelines, in part, via the flux of groundwater. We demonstrate this with measurements of groundwater discharge and the grain size of the sediment it carries, compared to long-term channel incision rates derived with the cosmogenic radionuclide 10Be. Rock uplift enhances erosion rates, and a long-held belief in Earth Science is that soil production processes are linked and will respond to an enhanced erosive flux. By applying 10Be dating to measure soil production rates in the evolving landscape of the Luquillo Mountains, we determined that there is no such functional relationship. We re-evaluated the methods and assumptions that have been applied to this question elsewhere, and determined that in fact, soil production is independent of soil depth across the globe. This implies that no safety net will save us from the massive loss of soil due to anthropogenically accelerated erosion. Even outside of managed landscapes, accelerated erosion under climate change is an imminent possibility. We demonstrate this with a record of physical erosion over 26 ky recorded by 10Be concentrations in the layers of floodplain sediments. Erosion rates are greatly accelerated by the predominance of landsliding that occurs due to the onset of intense, frequent tropical storms in the Caribbean. The floodplain sediments contain a contemporaneous record of ecosystem dynamics in the δ13C isotope ratios of buried organic material. Similar to physical erosion in the watershed, ecological dynamics shift to a disturbance-dominated state due to coupling with a more volatile climate.

Lobate stony landforms occur on steep slopes at high latitudes on Mars. We demonstrate active boulder movement at seven such sites. Submeter‐scale boulders frequently move distances of a few meters. The movement is concentrated in the vicinity of the lobate landforms but also occurs on other slopes. This provides evidence for a newly discovered, common style of activity on Mars, which may play an important role in slope degradation. It also opens the possibility that the lobate features are currently forming in the absence of significant volumes of liquid water., Key Points Boulder movement in and near lobate landforms on steep slopes at high latitude on Mars is commonThese changes could contribute to rapid slope evolution and to formation of the lobate landformsThis represents a new style of slope activity on Mars

In the Late Noachian to Early Hesperian period, rivers transported detritus from igneous source terrains to a downstream lake within Gale crater, creating a stratified stack of fluviolacustrine rocks that is currently exposed along the slopes of Mount Sharp. Controversy exists regarding the paleoclimate that supported overland flow of liquid water at Gale crater, in large part because little is known about how chemical and mineralogical paleoclimate indicators from mafic‐rock dominated source‐to‐sink systems are translated into the rock record. Here, we compile data from basaltic terrains with varying climates on Earth in order to provide a reference frame for the conditions that may have prevailed during the formation of the sedimentary strata in Gale crater, particularly focusing on the Sheepbed and Pahrump Hills members. We calculate the chemical index of alteration for weathering profiles and fluvial sediments to better constrain the relationship between climate and chemical weathering in mafic terrains, a method that best estimates the cooler limit of climate conditions averaged over time. We also compare X‐ray diffraction patterns and mineral abundances from fluvial sediments in varying terrestrial climates and martian mudstones to better understand the influence of climate on secondary mineral assemblages in basaltic terrains. We show that the geochemistry and mineralogy of most of the fine‐grained sedimentary rocks in Gale crater display first‐order similarities with sediments generated in climates that resemble those of present‐day Iceland, while other parts of the stratigraphy indicate even colder baseline climate conditions. None of the lithologies examined at Gale crater resemble fluvial sediments or weathering profiles from warm (temperate to tropical) terrestrial climates., Key Points Terrestrial sediments and weathering profiles from basaltic terrains display first‐order similarities with mudstones from Gale crater, MarsThe chemical index of alteration can be used as paleoclimate proxy and places constraints on the ancient climate of Gale crater, MarsThe paleoclimate of Gale crater, Mars, was variable and ranged from Icelandic‐like conditions to colder climates

The tectonically active Taiwan orogen features numerous rivers that yield a high amount of sediment with fluxes exceeding 104 t/km2/yr. Amongst these, the landslide-dominated Liwu River is well studied regarding its dynamic surface processes. However, the quantification of denudation in the Liwu Basin is still an ongoing task as rates obtained to date are subject to substantial differences depending on methods that differ in their spatio-temporal scales. We constrain an upper limit of global denudation using the cosmogenic nuclide 10Be(meteoric) and its ratio to stable 9Be. Meteoric cosmogenic 10Be is delivered to Earth’s surface by precipitation, whereas stable 9Be is released from rock weathering. In contrast to in situ cosmogenic 10Be measured in quartz, the 10Be(meteoric)/9Be ratio can be analyzed in quartz-poor settings. 10Be(meteoric)/9Be-derived denudation rates (Dmet) vary from 8.1 to >30 mm/yr in the Liwu mainstem, and from 3.4 to 21.5 mm/yr in the tributaries. These new Dmet are among the highest cosmogenic nuclide-derived rates ever measured. Most of these rates agree with rates from sediment gauging or channel incision. We propose that stochastic landsliding plays a major role in denudation processes here. Using a soil-bedrock mixing model and published riverine organic 14C data as a soil tracer, we estimate the fractional contribution of bedrock landslide material to mainstem sediments to be 55%–97%, which explains the magnitude and large variability (4-fold) in Dmet. We demonstrate the complexity associated with denudation rates determination in landslide-dominated routing systems; but also the potential of 10Be(meteoric)/9Be for tracing stochastic landsliding processes., Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 126 (10), ISSN:0148-0227, ISSN:2169-9003, ISSN:2169-9011

Wind‐formed features are abundant in Oxia Planum (Mars), the landing site of the 2022 ExoMars mission, which shows geological evidence for a past wet environment. Studies of aeolian bedforms at the landing site were focused on assessing the risk for rover trafficability, however their potential in recording climatic fluctuations has not been explored. Here we show that the landing site experienced multiple climatic changes in the Amazonian, which are recorded by an intriguing set of ridges that we interpret as Periodic Bedrock Ridges (PBRs). Clues for a PBR origin result from ridge regularity, defect terminations, and the presence of preserved megaripples detaching from the PBRs. PBR orientation differs from superimposed transverse aeolian ridges pointing toward a major change in wind regime. Our results provide constrains on PBR formation mechanisms and offer indications on paleo winds that will be crucial for understanding the landing site geology., Key Points We present the first evidence for a periodic bedrock ridge (PBRs) pattern from the ExoMars 2022 landing siteFormative paleowind directions are extrapolated from PBRs and transverse aeolian ridgesEvidence for an Amazonian change in the wind regime are provided

Many boulders on (101955) Bennu, a near‐Earth rubble pile asteroid, show signs of in situ disaggregation and exfoliation, indicating that thermal fatigue plays an important role in its landscape evolution. Observations of particle ejections from its surface also show it to be an active asteroid, though the driving mechanism of these events is yet to be determined. Exfoliation has been shown to mobilize disaggregated particles in terrestrial environments, suggesting that it may be capable of ejecting material from Bennu's surface. We investigate the nature of thermal fatigue on the asteroid, and the efficacy of fatigue‐driven exfoliation as a mechanism for generating asteroid activity, by performing finite element modeling of stress fields induced in boulders from diurnal cycling. We develop a model to predict the spacing of exfoliation fractures and the number and speed of particles that may be ejected during exfoliation events. We find that crack spacing ranges from ~1 mm to 10 cm and disaggregated particles have ejection speeds up to ~2 m/s. Exfoliation events are most likely to occur in the late afternoon. These predictions are consistent with observed ejection events at Bennu and indicate that thermal fatigue is a viable mechanism for driving asteroid activity. Crack propagation rates and ejection speeds are greatest at perihelion when the diurnal temperature variation is largest, suggesting that events should be more energetic and more frequent when closer to the Sun. Annual thermal stresses that arise in large boulders may influence the spacing of exfoliation cracks or frequency of ejection events., Key Points We simulated stress fields in boulders to assess the nature and efficacy of thermal breakdown on Bennu, including by exfoliationOur model predicts that exfoliation is capable of ejecting centimeter‐scale particles from the asteroid at speeds of meters per secondThis mechanism is consistent with observations of particle ejection at Bennu and is a viable explanation for Bennu's activity

This paper provides an overview of the Curiosity rover's exploration at Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) and summarizes the science results. VRR is a distinct geomorphic feature on lower Aeolis Mons (informally known as Mount Sharp) that was identified in orbital data based on its distinct texture, topographic expression, and association with a hematite spectral signature. Curiosity conducted extensive remote sensing observations, acquired data on dozens of contact science targets, and drilled three outcrop samples from the ridge, as well as one outcrop sample immediately below the ridge. Our observations indicate that strata composing VRR were deposited in a predominantly lacustrine setting and are part of the Murray formation. The rocks within the ridge are chemically in family with underlying Murray formation strata. Red hematite is dispersed throughout much of the VRR bedrock, and this is the source of the orbital spectral detection. Gray hematite is also present in isolated, gray‐colored patches concentrated toward the upper elevations of VRR, and these gray patches also contain small, dark Fe‐rich nodules. We propose that VRR formed when diagenetic event(s) preferentially hardened rocks, which were subsequently eroded into a ridge by wind. Diagenesis also led to enhanced crystallization and/or cementation that deepened the ferric‐related spectral absorptions on the ridge, which helped make them readily distinguishable from orbit. Results add to existing evidence of protracted aqueous environments at Gale crater and give new insight into how diagenesis shaped Mars' rock record., Key Points We summarize Curiosity's campaign at Vera Rubin ridge (Sols 1726–2302) and the high‐level results from articles in this special issueVera Rubin ridge formed when diagenesis hardened rocks along the base of Aeolis Mons; wind subsequently etched the feature into a ridgeResults add evidence for protracted aqueous environments at Gale crater and give new insight into how diagenesis shaped Mars' rock record

Geochemical models of secondary mineral precipitation on Mars generally assume semiopen systems (open to the atmosphere but closed at the water‐sediment interface) and equilibrium conditions. However, in natural multicomponent systems, the reactive surface area of primary minerals controls the dissolution rate and affects the precipitation sequences of secondary phases, and simultaneously, the transport of dissolved species may occur through the atmosphere‐water and water‐sediment interfaces. Here we present a suite of geochemical models designed to analyze the formation of secondary minerals in basaltic sediments on Mars, evaluating the role of (i) reactive surface areas and (ii) the transport of ions through a basalt sediment column. We consider fully open conditions, both to the atmosphere and to the sediment, and a kinetic approach for mineral dissolution and precipitation. Our models consider a geochemical scenario constituted by a basin (i.e., a shallow lake) where supersaturation is generated by evaporation/cooling and the starting point is a solution in equilibrium with basaltic sediments. Our results show that cation removal by diffusion, along with the input of atmospheric volatiles and the influence of the reactive surface area of primary minerals, plays a central role in the evolution of the secondary mineral sequences formed. We conclude that precipitation of evaporites finds more restrictions in basaltic sediments of small grain size than in basaltic sediments of greater grain size., Key Points Fully open (simultaneously to the atmosphere and sediment interfaces) kinetic models to track the formation of clays and evaporites on MarsAnalyses of cation removal by diffusion and by adsorption to clays, input of atmospheric volatiles, and reactive surface area of basaltPrecipitation of evaporites more restricted in basaltic sediments of small size than in basaltic sediments of greater size

This paper explores the implications of the observed Bennu particle ejection events for that asteroid's spin rate and orbit evolution, which could complicate interpretation of the Yarkovsky‐O'Keefe‐Radzievskii‐Paddack (YORP) and Yarkovsky effects on this body's spin rate and orbital evolution. Based on current estimates of particle ejection rates, we find that the overall contribution to Bennu's spin and orbital drift is small or negligible as compared to the Yarkovsky and YORP effects. However, if there is a large unseen component of smaller mass ejections or a strong directionality in the ejection events, it could constitute a significant contribution that could mask the overall YORP effect. This means that the YORP effect may be stronger than currently assumed. The analysis is generalized so that the particle ejection effect can be assessed for other bodies that may be subject to similar mass loss events. Further, our model can be modified to address different potential mechanisms of particle ejection, which are a topic of ongoing study., Key Points The net contribution of particle ejection from Bennu's surface on its spin rate and orbit evolution is minimal under some assumptionsIf there are systematics in ejection geometry, there may be meaningful contributions to rotational accelerationOur model can be tuned to address different potential mechanisms of particle ejection

© 2019 American Journal of Science. All rights reserved. The exposure of organic carbon in rocks to oxidative weathering can release carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere and consume atmospheric oxygen. Alongside volcanism, metamorphism, and the weathering of carbonate minerals by sulfuric acid, this is a major source of atmospheric CO2 over million year timescales. The balance between CO2 release and CO2 drawdown by silicate weathering and organic carbon burial sets the net geochemical carbon budget during weathering and erosion. However, the rates of rock-derived organic carbon (petrogenic organic carbon, OCpetro) oxidation remain poorly constrained. Here, we use rhenium as a proxy to trace and quantify CO2 release by OCpetro oxidation in the Mackenzie River Basin, Canada, where the other carbon fluxes have been well constrained previously. River water and sediment samples were collected between 2009 and 2013 at gauging stations along the Mackenzie River and its main tributaries (Liard, Peel and Arctic Red). To assess rhenium inputs from silicate, sulfide and OCpetro mineral phases we normalize dissolved rhenium concentrations, [Re]diss, to sodium and sulfate ion concentrations. This approach suggests that >85 percent of Re]diss is derived from OC tro in the main river channels. [Re]diss and water discharge measurements are used to quantify dissolved Re yields. River sediments provide a measure of the Re to OC tro ratio of materials undergoing weathering in the basin, and agree well with published rock samples. Dissolved Re yields are combined with river sediment [Re]/[OCpetro] ratios to estimate the CO2 emissions by OCpetro weathering. These are 0.45+019/-0.11 metric tonnes of carbon, tC km2 yr-1 for the Mackenzie River at Tsiigehtchic (3.8+1.5/0.9 × 104 moles km-2 yr-1), and 0.94+0.41/-0.26 tC km-2yr-1, 0.78+0.35/-0.21tC km-2 yr-1 and 1.01+0.42./-0.25tC km-2 yr-1 for the Peel, Arctic Red and Liard catchments, respectively. When considered alongside published silicate and carbonate weathering rates and the sedimentary burial of biospheric organic carbon, these data suggest that the upper part of the Mackenzie River Basin presently acts as an atmospheric CO2 sink of ∼1 tC km-2 yr-1 (∼8 × 104 moles km-2 yr-1) as a result of the carbon transfers by weathering and erosion. During the Last Glacial Maximum, it is possible that the net geochemical carbon balance may have been very different: potential increases in CO2 emissions from oxidative weathering of OCpetro and carbonate minerals, coupled with reduced biospheric carbon burial, may have tipped the balance to a net source of CO2

Understanding the initial and flow conditions of contemporary flows in Martian gullies, generally believed to be triggered and fluidized by CO2 sublimation, is crucial for deciphering climate conditions needed to trigger and sustain them. We employ the RAMMS (RApid Mass Movement Simulation) debris flow and avalanche model to back calculate initial and flow conditions of recent flows in three gullies in Hale crater. We infer minimum release depths of 1.0–1.5 m and initial release volumes of 100–200 m3. Entrainment leads to final flow volumes that are ∼2.5–5.5 times larger than initially released, and entrainment is found necessary to match the observed flow deposits. Simulated mean cross‐channel flow velocities decrease from 3–4 m/s to ∼1 m/s from release area to flow terminus, while flow depths generally decrease from 0.5–1 to 0.1–0.2 m. The mean cross‐channel erosion depth and deposition thicknesses are ∼0.1–0.3 m. Back‐calculated dry‐Coulomb friction ranges from 0.1 to 0.25 and viscous‐turbulent friction between 100 and 200 m/s2, which are values similar to those of granular debris flows on Earth. These results suggest that recent flows in gullies are fluidized to a similar degree as are granular debris flows on Earth. Using a novel model for mass flow fluidization by CO2 sublimation we are able to show that under Martian atmospheric conditions very small volumetric fractions of CO2 of ≪1% within mass flows may indeed yield sufficiently large gas fluxes to cause fluidization and enhance flow mobility., Key Points We use RAMMS to back calculate initial and flow conditions of recent flows in three gullies in Hale craterRecent flows in gullies are fluidized to a similar degree as are wet granular debris flows on EarthVery small volumetric fractions of CO2 of ≪1% may yield sufficiently large gas fluxes to fluidize contemporary flow in Martian gullies

While previous cometary missions were only limited to flybys, the groundbreaking ESA/Rosetta mission escorted comet 67P for two years. This enabled for the first time to make in situ measurements of the evolution of a comet's plasma environment. On one hand, low time resolution electron densities are calculated using the plasma frequency extracted from the mutual impedance spectra measured by the RPC-Mutual Impedance Probe (MIP). On the other hand, high time resolution fluctuations of spacecraft potential and ion current are measured by the RPC-Langmuir Probe (LAP). Thus, we perform a MIP-LAP cross-calibration using a spacecraft charging model to retrieve high time resolution electron density fluctuations throughout the entire mission (whenever both the required MIP and LAP operations and data allow). This new dataset will be available to the scientific community on the ESA/PSA around Summer 2019, however it is already available for specific cases of interest. Here, we make use of these data, together with RPC-MAG magnetic field measurements, to investigate in detail the properties of the low-frequency so-called "singing comet" waves observed in the plasma environment of 67P, making use of a change in the wave activity before and during a cometary brightness outburst on February 19, 2016.

The Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity visited two active wind‐blown sand dunes within Gale crater, Mars, which provided the first ground‐based opportunity to compare Martian and terrestrial eolian dune sedimentary processes and study a modern analog for the Martian eolian rock record. Orbital and rover images of these dunes reveal terrestrial‐like and uniquely Martian processes. The presence of grainfall, grainflow, and impact ripples resembled terrestrial dunes. Impact ripples were present on all dune slopes and had a size and shape similar to their terrestrial counterpart. Grainfall and grainflow occurred on dune and large‐ripple lee slopes. Lee slopes were ~29° where grainflows were present and ~33° where grainfall was present. These slopes are interpreted as the dynamic and static angles of repose, respectively. Grain size measured on an undisturbed impact ripple ranges between 50 μm and 350 μm with an intermediate axis mean size of 113 μm (median: 103 μm). Dissimilar to dune eolian processes on Earth, large, meter‐scale ripples were present on all dune slopes. Large ripples had nearly symmetric to strongly asymmetric topographic profiles and heights ranging between 12 cm and 28 cm. The composite observations of the modern sedimentary processes highlight that the Martian eolian rock record is likely different from its terrestrial counterpart because of the large ripples, which are expected to engender a unique scale of cross stratification. More broadly, however, in the Bagnold Dune Field as on Earth, dune‐field pattern dynamics and basin‐scale boundary conditions will dictate the style and distribution of sedimentary processes., Key Points Impact ripples, grainfall, and grainflows occur on Martian dunes and are similar to terrestrial counterpartsUnique, meter‐scale large ripples are found on Martian dunes and would distinguish the Martian and terrestrial eolian rock recordsThe angle of repose on Martian dunes and large ripples is found to be around 29°, which is similar to that found on Earth

The Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover performed coordinated measurements to examine the textures and compositions of aeolian sands in the active Bagnold dune field. The Bagnold sands are rounded to subrounded, very fine to medium sized (~45–500 μm) with ≥6 distinct grain colors. In contrast to sands examined by Curiosity in a dust‐covered, inactive bedform called Rocknest and soils at other landing sites, Bagnold sands are darker, less red, better sorted, have fewer silt‐sized or smaller grains, and show no evidence for cohesion. Nevertheless, Bagnold mineralogy and Rocknest mineralogy are similar with plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxenes in similar proportions comprising >90% of crystalline phases, along with a substantial amorphous component (35% ± 15%). Yet Bagnold and Rocknest bulk chemistry differ. Bagnold sands are Si enriched relative to other soils at Gale crater, and H2O, S, and Cl are lower relative to all previously measured Martian soils and most Gale crater rocks. Mg, Ni, Fe, and Mn are enriched in the coarse‐sieved fraction of Bagnold sands, corroborated by visible/near‐infrared spectra that suggest enrichment of olivine. Collectively, patterns in major element chemistry and volatile release data indicate two distinctive volatile reservoirs in Martian soils: (1) amorphous components in the sand‐sized fraction (represented by Bagnold) that are Si‐enriched, hydroxylated alteration products and/or H2O‐ or OH‐bearing impact or volcanic glasses and (2) amorphous components in the fine fraction (, Key Points Because of ongoing aeolian activity, the Bagnold dunes consist of well‐sorted sands and lack the finer grains typical of Martian soilsDune sands are chemically distinct with elevated Si, Mg, and Ni and lower H2O, S, and Cl relative to all previously measured Martian finesTwo distinct, water‐/OH‐bearing amorphous components are identified: Fe‐, S‐, and Cl‐rich material in dust and Si‐rich material in the sands

The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument on board the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover is designed to conduct inorganic and organic chemical analyses of the atmosphere and the surface regolith and rocks to help evaluate the past and present habitability potential of Mars at Gale Crater. Central to this task is the development of an inventory of any organic molecules present to elucidate processes associated with their origin, diagenesis, concentration, and long-term preservation. This will guide the future search for biosignatures. Here we report the definitive identification of chlorobenzene (150–300 parts per billion by weight (ppbw)) and C2 to C4 dichloroalkanes (up to 70 ppbw) with the SAM gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GCMS) and detection of chlorobenzene in the direct evolved gas analysis (EGA) mode, in multiple portions of the fines from the Cumberland drill hole in the Sheepbed mudstone at Yellowknife Bay. When combined with GCMS and EGA data from multiple scooped and drilled samples, blank runs, and supporting laboratory analog studies, the elevated levels of chlorobenzene and the dichloroalkanes cannot be solely explained by instrument background sources known to be present in SAM. We conclude that these chlorinated hydrocarbons are the reaction products of Martian chlorine and organic carbon derived from Martian sources (e.g., igneous, hydrothermal, atmospheric, or biological) or exogenous sources such as meteorites, comets, or interplanetary dust particles. Key Points First in situ evidence of nonterrestrial organics in Martian surface sediments Chlorinated hydrocarbons identified in the Sheepbed mudstone by SAM Organics preserved in sample exposed to ionizing radiation and oxidative condition

We examined the spectral properties of a selection of Titan's impact craters that represent a range of degradation states. The most degraded craters have rims and ejecta blankets with spectral characteristics that suggest that they are more enriched in water ice than the rims and ejecta blankets of the freshest craters on Titan. The progression is consistent with the chemical weathering of Titan's surface. We propose an evolutionary sequence such that Titan's craters expose an intimate mixture of water ice and organic materials, and chemical weathering by methane rainfall removes the soluble organic materials, leaving the insoluble organics and water ice behind. These observations support the idea that fluvial processes are active in Titan's equatorial regions., Key Points We examine the spectral properties of Titan's impact cratersDegraded crater rims are more enriched in water ice than fresh crater rimsObservations suggest chemical weathering of organics in water ice matrix