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The effect of shungite on the structural and viscous-flow properties of compositions based on oligobutadiene was studied. The strength of coagulation structures of ebonite compositions filled with shungite was determined. The critical filling concentration was established and it is 40 wt.% of shungite per 100 wt.% of oligobutadiene. It was shown that increasing the temperature from 200C to 800C leads to a significant reduction in the shear stress required to destroy the structure of the composition. Temperature and shear rate independently affect the structured composition. Thus, it was shown that shungite powder can be used as a filler in liquid ebonite compositions based on oligobutadiene.

For the first time, the effect of γ-radiation (with doses of 5, 10, 15, and 20 Mrad) on the structure and mechanical characteristics of a polymer composite material based on low-molecular-weight rubbers has been studied. It is shown that an increased radiation dose increases its breaking stress and decreases the breaking strain. The fracture energies are calculated from experimental values of the breaking stress and breaking strain. It is shown that the strength (fracture energy) of samples increases with radiation dose. On irradiation with a dose of 20 Mrad, samples acquired the property of ebonite, which was indicated by a sharp decrease in the breaking strain and an increase in the breaking stress. Based on the study of IR spectra of samples, it is assumed that the change in their mechanical characteristics under the influence of γ-radiation is caused by changes in the structure of the material, i.e., destruction of the carbonyl double bond and an increase in the concentration of other chemical bonds.

The effect of gamma-irradiation with doses of 5, 10, 15, and 20 Mrad on the mechanical characteristics of a polymer composite material has been studied. It has been shown that an increase in the radiation dose leads to an increase in the breaking stress and a decrease in the breaking strain. Toughness values have been calculated, from which it follows that the strength of the investigated samples (toughness) increases with increasing radiation dose, reaching a maximum at 20 Mrad. An increase in the test temperature leads to a sharp decrease in the toughness. Irradiation with gamma-rays to a dose of 20 Mrad leads to the material acquiring the properties of ebonite, as indicated by a sharp decrease in the breaking strain and an increase in the breaking stress.

—The problem of determining the complex dielectric constant of materials in the centimeter and millimeter wavelength ranges is solved using the waveguide method with an double-ridged waveguide. The use of a segment of an double-ridged waveguide as the measuring cell made it possible to expand the operating frequency range and increase the measurement accuracy due to localization of the electromagnetic field energy in the space between metal ridges. The electromagnetic fields of hybrid types of waves in the double-ridged waveguide were calculated by the partial region method taking into account the peculiarities of the electromagnetic field on the metal and dielectric ridges. The results of measuring the complex dielectric constant for samples made of ebonite, Teflon, and fiberglass are presented.

The use of link slab as a substitute for expansion joints is one of the innovations that can provide benefits for bridge life, user comfort, and maintenance cost efficiency. Link slab is a slab placed on the upper surface of the adjacent girder end which forms a continuous slab system with the slab deck. In the transition zone, link slab and girder are installed in hard rubber and soft rubber pads at some thick variations in each type of rubber. Moment on the link slab is obtained due to the effect of traffic load according to SNI 1725: 2016 with the condition of the link slab without and with rubber pads. The study of the use of link slab in this paper is carried out in a numerical approach on a finite element software-Abaqus. Link slab is modeled as a 3D solid model in compressive concrete variations. In this study, the addition of hard rubber pads on link slab can reduce the magnitude of moments compared to link slab without rubber pads. This is indicated by the percentage reduction moment between 39,20-83,42% on LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3 hard rubber pads with thichness 10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm. While on link slab with soft rubber pads is found that moments are greater at the very thick pads This is indicated by the percentage difference in moments between 198,26 – 244,58% on LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3 soft rubber pads with thickness 10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm. This large difference is due to the effect of moment change from negative moments (initial conditions) to positive moments after the addition of soft rubber pads.

During the last 21 year period from 1996–2016, the total value of imports of rubber and rubber products grew at a rate of 17.66% compared to 14.18% growth rate in the value of exports. As a result of higher growth in imports and lower growth in exports, in the last 10 years, external trade in this segment had shown negative balance of trade consistently. In 2016–2017, the country had a negative balance of trade of US$ 414.76 million dollars. The broad objective of the present study is to identify products groups with comparative advantages in the global market. The study used methods such as Revealed Comparative Advantage, Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage and concentration ratio to analyse the comparative advantage of all the 17 rubber and rubber product groups (four digit level) under chapter 40 of the harmonised system nomenclature. Data from world integrated trade solution (WITS) during the period 1996–2016 are used for the analysis. Our results showed that despite a comparative disadvantage of the rubber sector at the aggregate level in the world market, the three product groups, viz, reclaimed rubber (HS 4003), inner tubes, of rubber (HS 4013), and hygienic or pharmaceutical articles (including teats) (HS 4014), exhibited comparative advantage consistently throughout the 21 year period. The two major product groups, viz., new pneumatic tyres of rubber (HS 4011) and other articles of vulcanised rubber other than hard rubber (HS 4016), which accounted for 68.68% of the total value of exports from the sector showed varied trends.

The determination of mechanical properties of materials provides the basis for the fundamental understanding of the behaviour of components that can experience degradation in operation and/or even during storage. A very representative example of this is the thermal aging mechanism that severely affects materials that are ultimately intended to operate in a harsh operating environment as that of a nuclear reactor. Polymers, and especially elastomers, play a key role as part of the many mechanical, electrical and electronic components found in nuclear power generation plants. The degradation of polymeric materials is a frequent phenomenon that is accelerated, in many cases, by arduous operating conditions. Elastomers, especially rubbers - such as acrylonitrile butadiene, NBR - experience degradation that is favoured by contact with oxygen [1]. This type of reaction -which triggers the irreversible damage of the component- is favoured by an increase in the operating temperature. Therefore, it is of interest to analyse how their intrinsic properties influence their thermal aging. One of most usual parts with relevant safety-related function in nuclear equipment is the NBR O-rings or gaskets that are used as mechanical sealing elements, since their safety function is being capable of preventing any leakage (whether internal or external) throughout the useful life of the equipment [2]. The objective of this work is the development of a methodology to determine the useful life -based on the storage temperature- of NBR O-rings using a reliability-based approach that allows to obtain the health condition at different supposed storage scenarios, considering the required in-service performance. For the study, NBR has been selected as a gasket material, since a previous work has shown that acrylonitrile is the best option [3] to withstand moderate levels of radiation thresholds extracted from databases [4-5] as well as its recyclability providing a sustainable life cycle. The evaluated parameter has been the Shore A hardness in accordance with ISO 868 [6] during a period of five years (between 2014 and 2019). Thus, the thermal embrittlement is quantified based on an adaptation of Arrhenius model-based correlation between hardness and temperature and storage time. The study incorporates a comparison between the results obtained for newly manufactured and existing O-rings in the warehouse, considering several statistical scenarios. REFERENCES Azura A., Thomas A (2006): “Effect of heat ageing on crosslinking scission and mechanical properties. elastomer and components. service life prediction–progress and challenges”. In Coveney, V. (Ed.). Elastomer and components: Service life prediction - progress and challenges, 27–38, Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281852920_Effect_of_Curing_Systems_on_Thermal_Degradation_Behavior_ofNatural_Rubber_SMR_CV_60 [accessed Sep 08 2020]. EPRI CGI-OR02 (1992): “Commercial grade item evaluation for national O-Rings”. Electrical Power Research Institute, Palo Alto-CA (USA). Rodriguez-Prieto A., Camacho A.M., Sebastian M.A., Yanguas-Gil A. (2019): “Analysis of mechanical and thermal properties of elastomers for manufacturing of components in the nuclear industry”. Procedia Manufacturing 41, 177–184. IAEA-TECDOC-1551 (2007): “Implementation strategies and tools for condition based on maintenance at nuclear power plants”. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. Van de Voorde M.H., Restat C. (1972): “Selection guide to organic materials for nuclear engineering”. European Organization for Nuclear research, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. ISO 868 (2003): “Plastics and ebonite — Determination of indentation hardness by means of a durometer (Shore hardness)”. International Standardization Organization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland.

Ebonite compositions, which are oligo-butadienes-based, are widely used for gumming the chemical equipment and instruments that are operated in aggressive media. For the ebonite compositions with anti-corrosion purposes, of scientific and practical interest was to explore the possibility of using as a filler of chemically resistant polymeric materials, which include the ftorlon powder F-2M. We examined the effect of a ftorlon filler on the rheological properties of ebonite compositions based on 1.2-oligo-butadiene. Results of the study revealed that the compositions on the base of oligo-butadiene, filled with a ftorlon powder, are the weakly structured systems with a pseudo plastic nature of the flow. Fluctuation grids of the compositions filled with ftorlon are easily destroyed under the action of uniform shear and temperature. In order to resolve this issue and to ensure the developed coagulation structure, the compositions need to be introduced with structure-forming additives, in particular aerosil (up to 5 % by weight). We determined the dependence of strength of a vulcanizate on the sulfur content and the duration of vulcanization of coatings, which is important in order to regulate the properties and technological process of obtaining the chemically resistant coatings with improved properties. As a result of vulcanization of the examined compositions, it is possible to receive coatings with high strength (up to 27 MPa at tearing) and adhesion (9.8–10.2 MPa at tearing) without the use of specialized primers and adhesives. We explored the ohmic-capacitive characteristics and demonstrated chemical resistance of the vulcanized coatings in the 20 % solutions of sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.

Reinforcement is a fundamental issue in rubber science and engineering. Traditionally, rubber reinforcement relies on the incorporation of rigid particles into rubber network or creation of the rubber network with dual-crosslink. However, all these methods inevitably sacrifice the unique elasticity of rubber, which is a shackle toward some crucial applications such as energy-saving tires. In this contribution, a novel strategy of rubber-reinforced rubber (3R) with the combination of significant reinforcement and high elasticity is proposed. With experimental/simulating integrated method, a brand-new reinforcing mechanism for rubber is disclosed, called soft matrix-induced large extensionability of hard rubber (“SMILE-HR”). The soft matrix endows the highly-crosslinked rubber particles (HPs) with the capacity of large extensionablity, so the molecular chains in HPs can be highly oriented and thus obtain high strength during stretching, which are primarily responsible for the dramatic reinforcement of 3R. This skillful combination of these two elastic constituents conquers the stubborn contradiction between reinforcement and elasticity, which is very promising for the engineering rubbers served in dynamic environment.

This paper deals with an experimental analysis of hard rubber dynamic tests under finite torsion deformations. The experimental test rig was designed and composed for torsion loading of rubber under defined amplitudes, frequencies and temperatures. The present paper brings an amplitude-temperature analysis of isoprene-butadiene rubber ascertained by the use of the test rig. The mathematical rheological model of rubber was designed for phenomenological description and parametric identification of rubber.

Dampers and shock absorbers consisting of vertical concentric elastic shells are considered. The external and internal shells are made of hard rubber, while the middle shell is made of soft rubber. Independent action of the shells permits optimal loading and energy-efficient operation of the device.

Compound Design * Mixing Technology * Mixing Machinery for the Rubber Industry * Calendering Technology * Extrusion and Extrusion Technology * Vulcanization and Curing Techniques * Computer-Aided Mould Design * Automation and Control in the Rubber Industry * Improving Rubber Testing with Microcomputers * Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) * Rubber-to-Metal Bonding * Coated Fabrics Computer-Aided Rubber Product Design * Tyre Compound Development * Developments in Tyre Technology * Conveyor Belt Technology * V-Belt and Fan Beft Manufacturing Technology * Hose Technology * Cable Technology * Vibration Isolators and Mounts * Rubber in Automotive Applications * Oil-Resistant Rubber Material for Automotive Hoses * Rubber-Covered Rolls * Footwear Technology * Sealing Technology * Hard Rubber Compounds * Rubber Sports Goods Manufacturing Technology * Latex Products Manufacturing Technology * Foam Products Manufacturing Technology * Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Tape Technology * Just-In-Time and the Rubber Industry * Waste Disposal.

The new technique for measuring the complex permittivity of materials in a wide microwave frequency range has been developed. The double ridged waveguide has been used as a measuring cell. The proposed technique allows to increase the accuracy of measurements by placing the dielectric sample between the ridges of the waveguide, in the place of maximum concentration of electromagnetic energy of the fundamental wave. For the double ridged waveguide with dielectric filling, electrodynamic characteristics have been calculated, such as propagation constants and cutoff frequencies. The structure of the fundamental HE-wave at the operating frequency has been determined and visualized. The measurement results of the complex permittivity of the ebonite sample have been presented.

Sustainable Eucommia ulmoides gum (EUG) was a biomaterial with the molecular structure of trans-1,4-polyisoprene and poor elasticity, and was usually considered as a hard rubber with a limited applications in rubber products. Triazolinedione (TAD)-based Alder-ene reaction was used to modify EUG to precisely tune the mechanical properties and effectively improve the elasticity by reducing crystallinity, introducing urazole groups, and forming hydrogen bonds between EUG molecules. By adjusting TAD feed, the modified EUG could become an excellent tough elastomer with combined high strength, elongation, and toughness; or a unique rubber with superhigh elongation, low Young's modulus, and good elastic recovery rate. Furthermore, the modified EUG displayed enhanced shape memory capability with fast shape recovery speed, high cyclic shape recovery rate after 10-cycle deformations, and large shape memory recoverable deformation. Therefore, these elastomers may have extended applications in tires and smart materials.

Clean floors in dairy housing have a positive impact on claw health, cleanliness of the animals and ammonia-emission reduction. Key indicator of cleaning quality is residual soiling mass, i.e. the manure remaining on the floor after dung removal. The aim of this study was to show the effects of scraping tool, rubber mat type, solid floor type, dung removal frequency and season on residual soiling mass. The comparison two scraping tools and two rubber mat types in winter showed that the rubber mat type (p = 0.001) and the scraping tool (p = 0.001) influenced the residual soiling mass. The cleaning quality was better on the common than on the soft rubber mat and the hard rubber lip left less residual soiling mass versus the metal blade (means: 174 vs. 230 g m−2 on common; 230 vs. 243 g m−2 on soft rubber mat). Further two floor types (with and without 3% slope) and two dung removal frequencies (three and 12 times per day) were investigated in three seasons. The statistical analysis proved the season as significant (p < 0.001). Residual soiling mass in winter was smaller than in warmer seasons regardless of floor type and dung removal frequency. Within the summer dataset the floor type was significant (p = 0.037): the floor without slope showed less residual soiling mass in average 218 resp. 234 g m−2 with three resp. 12 dung removal events per day than the sloped floor with 280 resp. 303 g m−2., Biosystems Engineering, 170, ISSN:1537-5129, ISSN:1537-5110

To improve the properties of hard rubber(Ebonite) from natural rubber, added Nano-Carbon black, where measured the properties of tensile, density, hardness and the properties of the vulcanization of a group of samples with different amount of sulfur from 18-36 pphr and different of carbon black (18-26-30) pphr. The results showed that the best carbon black ratio is 30 pphr, where it gives a balance between tensile properties of hand and toughness and flexibility of on the other hand and reduce brittleness in hard rubber.

In this study, an easy and enjoyable activity to determine the type of electric charge is presented, using a readymade electronic test screw. A four-way usage of the tester is explained with an electroscope. In the activity, ebonite and glass rods are negatively and positively charged by rubbing with paper sheets, respectively.

This dissertation explores the value system held by the author of the Epistle of James. Most likely, this interesting Epistle of a former Galilean peasant is a collection of his sermons or discourses gathered and edited by one of his followers. The Epistle does not relate to any specific problems of concrete communities or persons and, therefore, it may be viewed as an encyclical letter. The author's main tone is: «you must act in this way and only this way». Therefore this document is a type of «halakhah», a literary form used by the sages of Israel before the Common Era. «Halakhah», as well as the Greek literary form paraenesis, does not imply any discussion of the material, but rather calls the readers to submission. The author of this «halakhic» encyclical shifts the attention of his readers from their realities to his idealistic world. He omits many aspects of Second-Temple-Period Jewish life, focusing his attention instead on the rules of spiritual life common for both Judeans and Christians. This focus explains why the Epistle has only two brief and indirect references to Jesus Christ, who as the hero surprisingly does not play a distinctive role. for several reasons the Messiah is replaced by famous characters from the Tanakh (i. e., Abraham, Rahab, Job, and Elijah) as being the best examples for...

Ebonite is an interesting material. It is used as an electrical insulating medium and chemical-resistant material. Vulcanized ebonite is machinable and many engineering products can be made adopting regular engineering practices like turning, grinding, boring, drilling, etc.; however, it cannot be welded for making joints. It looks and feels like a hard plastic. It is called hard rubber because it is a modified version of soft rubber but not having the nature of soft rubber. Soft rubber has a low percentage of sulfur and is elastic, but hard rubber has lost most of its elastic or rubbery properties during conversion to the hard stage. It is a highly vulcanized rubber and has low swelling in a given liquid medium. Ebonites contain more than 30% sulfur combined with the natural rubber molecules. The commercial manufacture of hard rubber products started during the mid-19th century and henceforth ebonite became an important branch of the rubber industry. Though during subsequent years and until today newer types of hard plastics came into existence to replace hard rubber, the hard rubber industry continued to stay in its position of importance by virtue of its unique characteristics, the main one being its chemical resistance and its extensive use in the process industries. The chemical inertness, high strength, and good appearance of ebonite, and its machinability, led to its use in many applications.

A number of ordinary items of everyday use are obtained from complex chemical processes starting from life-saving drugs, capsules and tablets to perfumes, and so on. These are all derived from coal, crude oil, and petroleum gases. From crude oil we get fertilizers, plastics, synthetic rubbers, pesticides, detergents, fabrics, and coatings and paints. From sea water we get vital heavy chemicals like caustic soda, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, etc.

We encounter the miracle material rubber everywhere and every day without even realizing it—in cars, toothbrushes, mobile phones, computers, chewing gum, balloons, surgical gloves, bathroom mats, rubber corks, rubber bands, erasers, roads, hospitals, and in aircraft and space craft. When combined with other materials, rubber has an almost infinite number of uses. It is one of the most hardy, robust, and versatile materials in existence. The oldest traces of rubber were found in a fossil estimated to be 55–60 million years old, discovered in 1924 in lignite deposits in Germany. Amazingly, after being treated, the rubber still had its elastic properties!

In this study, a fuzzy artificial intelligence approach is utilized to predict the erosion rate of reinforced ebonite composite materials with carbon fiber owing to the significant accuracy of soft computing techniques. Experimental data were used to predict the erosion rate with respect to the input testing conditions, namely, impact velocity, impingement angle, erodent size, and stand-off distance. The size of the erosive element of randomly shaped sand particles (silicon dioxide) is set between 300 and 600 μm. Other input process parameters, such as the impact velocity between 30 and 50 m/s, the impingement angle between 30° and 90°, and the stand-off distance between 15 and 25 mm, are selected. The consistency between the experimental and fuzzy logic model values, with a 94.45 % accuracy, signifies that the proposed fuzzy logic model is suitable for predicting the erosion rate of reinforced ebonite composite materials. The maximum erosion rate is obtained between a 50° and 60° impingement angle. Morphological images are analyzed by scanning electron microscopy to elucidate the erosion mechanisms.

Tread wear of tyres is one of the serious issues in automobiles. Higher amount of heat is generated due to lesser availability of air in the tread region when the vehicle is travelling at high speeds. The existing M1 vehicle tyre has some specific standards of tread angle. In this paper, flow simulation and drop tests of M1 vehicle tyre are carried out using Solidworks. The objective of the work is to improve the cooling efficiency of tyre for vehicle speeds as 40 kmph, 80 kmph and 120 kmph. Various tread patterns for tyres made with hard rubber, Nylon66 and Nylon6 materials were simulated to predict the temperature distribution. Based on the temperature distribution and drop test results from the simulation, improved designs of M1 vehicle tyre are presented.

The widespread use of polymers for containers led to many premature failures of the thin walls, often caused by poor design such as sharp internal corners and poor moulding practice. Older battery containers were made from ebonite or hard rubber, and needed thick walls, but failed because of the inherent weakness of the material. A new patent led to much thinner walls and polypropylene is widely used for cases. A low density polyethylene bucket fractured when a weld line failed on a lug, injuring the user. Hydrogen explosions in lead–acid batteries are caused by short-circuits within the battery, but can often be detected before failure by swelling of the case sides caused by internal gas pressure. Fractures in truck cases were caused by poor design and moulding. Failures in polycarbonate miners' battery cases were caused by solvent welding and frozen-in strain from cold moulding and were minimized by changing to transparent polymer with quality control using strain birefringence. A new polishing method was developed to section case parts and moulding conditions closely monitored. Internal stress concentration occurred at corners, lowering drop impact strength. A small lithium cell exploded prematurely causing a serious eye injury. Inspection of the remains showed that a critical plastic seal showed brittle cracking across the radius and sub-critical cracking with melting of some corners, implying that the cracks were present before the explosion. A short-circuit likely caused the explosion and the battery cell was faulty. The electrolyte is based on an organic fluid and is highly inflammable.

The structure of the current tennis ball is covered with a uniform felt fabric on the outer surface made of hard rubber. As the ball continues to hit, the surface felt wears. Also, air leaks out through the structure inside. These factors cause a difference in the aerodynamic characteristics of new and used balls. In this research, the aerodynamic characteristics of the old and new tennis balls rotating were investigated and the PIV results of the flow around the ball due to the wear of the felt producing these characteristics were showed. For the four types of tennis balls tested, used balls showed higher in drag coefficient than new balls, and new balls tended to be higher than used ball in lift coefficient. It is believed that deformation due to deterioration of ball rubber brings about a change in drag coefficient, which causes a change in lift coefficient due to wear of the surface felt. In the new ball, felt fluff stands, which indicates that the wake flow is large and inclined diagonally backward compared to the used ball, and the air around the ball is found to be caught by the felt fluff.

We proposed and developed soft-rubber-packaged Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT) microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) force sensors as human–machine interface sensors of human touch and input. To achieve small and highly sensitive sensors with low-power-consumption, a small PZT MEMS cantilever was used as the sensing element, and it was covered with soft rubber, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), to prevent the cracking of the brittle PZT film when touching the sensor. The PDMS packaging does not affect the ferroelectric characteristics of the sensing PZT film, because the hysteresis and impedance changes of the PZT are less than 5%. The sensor dimensions are 5 × 5 × 1.1 mm3. The sensor generated charges without requiring voltage supply. The sensor generated an electric charge of 7.8 pC under an applied force of 1 N. The sensitivity was adjusted by changing the hardness of the soft rubber package: hard rubber provides high sensitivity, but the sensor is easily cracks. Hence, a sensor with a durometer hardness A of 35.6 was found to be optimal as a human–machine interface sensors of human touch of approximately 5–7 N because it has a linear sensitivity at force smaller than 5 N and the bending is small at forces larger than 5 N, which leads to a highly durable sensor. The sensor with a durometer hardness A of 35.6 did not break or crack until the applied force reached 40 N. By packaging brittle PZT MEMS cantilevers with soft rubber, small-force sensors can be constructed, leading to small, low-energy-consumption human–machine interface sensors.

This study is focused on the analysis of the characteristics and the effects on the ball speed of smash stroke using different types of bat rubber. The types of bat rubber researched in this study are inverted, pimpled out and hard rubber. The study samples are table tennis athletes of Table Tennis Student Activity Unit at UPI Bandung. The data of the study is obtained by conducting video analysis using motion software analysis system (Frame-DIAS IV). From the result of this study, speed data of each type of bat rubber is obtained. One-way ANOVA statistical test shows that there is no significant difference on the ball speed between inverted and hard rubber types. Another result shows that there are significant differences of ball speed which are produced by using inverted and hard rubber types. Some of the factors that influence these differences are pips orientation and thickness of each rubber. This test result shows that the selection of bat rubber types is vital in improving the quality of athlete performance.

Composite materials have many applications at different mechanisms in industry. The erosion characteristics of new combinations of ebonite reinforced with carbon fiber were analyzed in this study. Randomly-shaped sand (SiO2) particles of various sizes (300–355, 355–500, and 500–600 μm) were selected erosive element. Tested conditions such as impact angles between 15 and 90°, impact velocities between 30 and 50 m/s, and stand-off distances 15–25 mm at surrounding room temperature were maintained. The highest level of erosion of the tested composite was obtained at 60° impact angle, which signifies the semi-ductile behavior of this material. Erosion showed an increasing trend with impact velocity and decreasing nature in relation to stand-off distance. Surface damage was analyzed using SEM to examine the nature of the erosive wear mechanism.