Search

The present paper aims to study the Wachau Valley in Austria as a representative Cultural Landscape under threat from extreme hydrometeorological hazards linked to climate change. The primary objective is to investigate the impacts and assess the vulnerability associated with the events of heavy rain and flooding. The methodology employed consists of an investigation of recorded past events impacting the Wachau; a vulnerability ranking system; a climate time series analysis based on earth observation products; and future hazard maps at territorial level, developed with outputs from regional and global climate models. The investigation we carried out provides a vulnerability assessment of two terraced areas with a surface of about 10,000 m2 in total, characterized by the presence of dry stone walls, with different state of conservation in the Municipality of Krems (Wachau). In addition, climate projections at territorial level for the extreme climate indices R20mm, R95pTOT, and R×5day—selected for investigating the likelihood of increases/decreases in events of heavy rain and large basin flooding—are provided, with a spatial resolution of ~12 km for the near and far future (2021–2050; 2071–2100) under stabilizing (RCP 4.5) and pessimistic (RCP 8.5) scenarios. The results indicate a general increase for the three indices in the studied areas during the far future under the pessimistic scenario, suggesting a heightened risk of heavy rain and flooding. These findings aim to inform policymakers and decision-makers in their development of strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage. Furthermore, they serve to assist local stakeholders in enhancing their understanding of prioritizing interventions related to preparedness, emergency response, and recovery.

The present paper aims to study the Wachau Valley in Austria as a representative Cultural Landscape under threat from extreme hydrometeorological hazards linked to climate change. The primary objective is to investigate the impacts and assess the vulnerability associated with the events of heavy rain and flooding. The methodology employed consists of an investigation of recorded past events impacting the Wachau; a vulnerability ranking system; a climate time series analysis based on earth observation products; and future hazard maps at territorial level, developed with outputs from regional and global climate models. The investigation we carried out provides a vulnerability assessment of two terraced areas with a surface of about 10,000 m2 in total, characterized by the presence of dry stone walls, with different state of conservation in the Municipality of Krems (Wachau). In addition, climate projections at territorial level for the extreme climate indices R20mm, R95pTOT, and R×5day—selected for investigating the likelihood of increases/decreases in events of heavy rain and large basin flooding—are provided, with a spatial resolution of ~12 km for the near and far future (2021–2050; 2071–2100) under stabilizing (RCP 4.5) and pessimistic (RCP 8.5) scenarios. The results indicate a general increase for the three indices in the studied areas during the far future under the pessimistic scenario, suggesting a heightened risk of heavy rain and flooding. These findings aim to inform policymakers and decision-makers in their development of strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage. Furthermore, they serve to assist local stakeholders in enhancing their understanding of prioritizing interventions related to preparedness, emergency response, and recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tichitt culture of the Ceramic Late Stone Age is known for its large settlement sites, built from dry stone walls. It is centered on the cliffs of southeastern Mauritania, but its links to the Middle Niger and the later urban developments there have long been a topic of research. This article adds a further piece of evidence linking the two regions. The available evidence for a set of stone-walled features is presented, around 300 sites of varying sizes and complexity. They lie on and around the sandstone massifs of the Malian Lakes Region. The evidence is so far tentative as no dating or material culture is available, but the sites are presented as a research priority for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dry stone walls are a worldwide phenomenon that may shape entire regions. As a specific form of vernacular agro-pastoral practice, they are expressions of the culture and history of a region. Dry stone walls have recently received increased attention in Croatia, primarily due to research in landscape architecture and (historical) geography, though archaeological research on such remains is rare in part due to the challenges of undertaking such work in areas covered by dense evergreen maquis vegetation. In this paper, this type of landscape has been studied in detail for the first time using Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) based digital feature models as a basis to articulate dynamic dry stone wall landscapes in a diachronic archaeological interpretation. Using a case study from the Mediterranean region of Punta Križa, Croatia, we show that what superficially appears to be a simple system of dry stone walls contains a wealth of information on a complex sequence of human activity. The systematic, detailed, and diachronic interpretation applies a transparent workflow that provides a tool for all those undertaking interpretative mappings of archaeological prospection datasets and has proved highly effective when working with ALS-derived visualizations. The capacity to develop spatio-temporal interpretation within the framework of GIS and a Harris Matrix is especially powerful and has the potential to change our image of any region. While the case study presented here deals with a small area in Croatia, the methods described have a broad application in any areas of complex landscape remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terraced landscapes are characterized by many features but are also threatened by abandonment, with the loss of the historical landscape and increased hydrogeological risk. In this research, we developed an innovative integrated approach using expert-based assessment and evaluation of winegrowers' perceptions to investigate the coevolution between terraced landscapes and rural communities. The aims were as follows: (i) to identify the historical landscape elements, (ii) to identify the landscape dynamics, and (iii) to analyze winegrowers' perceptions about the historical landscape elements and future development prospects. The methodology was applied to a terraced vineyard landscape (545 ha) located in Piedmont (Italy). The expert-based assessment included historical analyses and field surveys. To evaluate winegrowers' perceptions, an online questionnaire was used to understand their perceptions about the landscape's historical elements and dynamics. The results suggest that unique historical landscape elements and traditional practices (vine pergolas supported by stone columns) are conserved in the area, but also highlight some dynamics, including new vine-breeding techniques (espaliers) and new land uses (olive groves, meadows, and woodland). Winegrowers (n = 49) recognized as identity elements the same identified as historical by experts. Regarding future prospects, almost all winegrowers preferred the conservation of vineyards and pergolas. The research methodology was able to show the mutual link between terraced landscapes and rural communities in coevolutionary terms and could be replicated in similar contexts. According to the winegrowers' awareness, future planning strategies will have to support dynamic conservation of the landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stone walls are ubiquitous field boundaries used to restrict livestock movement or to separate property. Bryophytes and lichens are often the dominant vegetation in dry stone walls and are strongly affected by local microhabitat characteristics. Bryophytes and lichens related metrics can be used to define habitat quality of stone walls.The current study assessed how richness and cover of bryophytes and macrolichens in dry stone walls related to each other and how different environmental variables and farm management descriptors determined richness and cover of both groups in dry stone walls. Bryophytes and macrolichens were sampled in stone walls on sixteen farms across a management intensity gradient in Ireland.Bryophyte cover correlated positively and significantly with bryophyte richness and macrolichen cover and richness, and can thus be used to assess stone walls quality. Farm management intensity emerged as the variable most strongly related with species richness of bryophytes and cover of both groups. Altitude also emerged as a strong predictor of both groups’ richness and cover. This study provides a novel perspective on stone wall habitat quality and results indicate that by promoting extensive farming it is possible to increase stone walls quality.

The dry stone wall landscape surrounding the town of Cres is a unique cultural landscape; it is one of the largest well-preserved historical olive groves in the Croatian Adriatic, while simultaneously serving as pasture for sheep. Still, there are currently no studies that capture this landscape as a multifunctional whole or which acknowledge its relevance within the current multidisciplinary discussions. The aim of this paper is to clarify past and current circumstances surrounding and affecting it. The study focuses on two main pillars of landscape preservation: (1) dry stone wall structures and (2) agro-pastoral practices; giving an overview of its historical formation and current management and trends. The goal is to establish knowledge that can be used as a foundation for the management of this area and present a good practice example for the preservation of historical landscapes in the Mediterranean region. The research involved combined desk and fieldwork: cartographic data analysis, literature analysis, GIS elaboration, terrestrial and aerial photographs and observations, followed by interviews with local informants. Continuous investing in the production of quality olive oil and the evolution of the landscape into a multifunctional agro-pastoral-touristic space is what enabled its preservation. This multifunctionality can only be matched by a diversity of scientific studies and this study aimed at providing the first step--a foundation for the identification of the values of the Cres landscape, with the scope of better precising further planning and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dry stone walls are a worldwide phenomenon that may shape entire regions. As a specific form of vernacular agro-pastoral practice, they are expressions of the culture and history of a region. Dry stone walls have recently received increased attention in Croatia, primarily due to research in landscape architecture and (historical) geography, though archaeological research on such remains is rare in part due to the challenges of undertaking such work in areas covered by dense evergreen maquis vegetation. In this paper, this type of landscape has been studied in detail for the first time using Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) based digital feature models as a basis to articulate dynamic dry stone wall landscapes in a diachronic archaeological interpretation. Using a case study from the Mediterranean region of Punta Križa, Croatia, we show that what superficially appears to be a simple system of dry stone walls contains a wealth of information on a complex sequence of human activity. The systematic, detailed, and diachronic interpretation applies a transparent workflow that provides a tool for all those undertaking interpretative mappings of archaeological prospection datasets and has proved highly effective when working with ALS-derived visualizations. The capacity to develop spatio-temporal interpretation within the framework of GIS and a Harris Matrix is especially powerful and has the potential to change our image of any region. While the case study presented here deals with a small area in Croatia, the methods described have a broad application in any areas of complex landscape remains.

Abstract Noise is an environmental pollutant of modern societies that affects the quality of life of the population and the buildings are the main objects that disappoint the noise levels of the environment because they are located on vehicular tracks. The purpose of the research was to determine the noise level of an environment at 1:5 scale with drywall coating above 3800 m.a.s.l. The methodology proposed the construction of two modules of the same characteristic, module A without acoustic coating and module B with 7 mm drywall acoustic coating on walls, using three UNI-T sound level meters model UT353, to compare the averages of the measurements. The results show that in the simulations the real conditions of the environmental noise, the module A shows that 93.33% of the data exceed the acceptable limits, on the other hand, module B the acoustic insulation reduces in 20% the initial emission. The comparison of the averages shows a significant difference with a p-value of 0.45, in addition the difference of averages is 8.5 dB (A) which indicates that the drywall has an effect of acoustic reduction due to the increase of the thickness of the wall and the reduction of infiltration areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dry stone wall landscape surrounding the town of Cres is a unique cultural landscape; it is one of the largest well-preserved historical olive groves in the Croatian Adriatic, while simultaneously serving as pasture for sheep. Still, there are currently no studies that capture this landscape as a multifunctional whole or which acknowledge its relevance within the current multidisciplinary discussions. The aim of this paper is to clarify past and current circumstances surrounding and affecting it. The study focuses on two main pillars of landscape preservation: (1) dry stone wall structures and (2) agro-pastoral practices; giving an overview of its historical formation and current management and trends. The goal is to establish knowledge that can be used as a foundation for the management of this area and present a good practice example for the preservation of historical landscapes in the Mediterranean region. The research involved combined desk and fieldwork: cartographic data analysis, literature analysis, GIS elaboration, terrestrial and aerial photographs and observations, followed by interviews with local informants. Continuous investing in the production of quality olive oil and the evolution of the landscape into a multifunctional agro-pastoral-touristic space is what enabled its preservation. This multifunctionality can only be matched by a diversity of scientific studies and this study aimed at providing the first step—a foundation for the identification of the values of the Cres landscape, with the scope of better precising further planning and management.

Dry stone walls often characterizes the agricultural landscape and the conservation of the terraced landscape can provide social and economic benefits for local communities. Nevertheless, in recent years many terraced landscapes have been destroyed to increase the arable land and therefore the profit of farmers. In order to avoid this, an increasing role can be played by private funds that can compensate farmers to maintain the dry stone walls inside their farms. The aim of this survey is to assess the benefits for the local community provided by the terraced vineyard landscape in Mt Etna (Italy). For this purpose, we estimated the willingness to pay to preserve the aforementioned landscape by using a Contingent Valuation approach. Results of our study show that the willingness to pay of local communities for the terraced vineyards of Mt Etna is positive, but the preservation of this historical resource implies the development of an environmental awareness and appropriate environmental education among potential users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Burren, Co. Clare, early medieval enclosed settlements are mainly of drystone construction, in the form of cashels, with earthen-banked raths comprising only a small minority. The enclosing elements of most of these settlements are circular, as in the rest of Ireland. However, in some isolated upland areas of the Burren, cashel-like enclosures of rectilinear plan are almost as common. Based on a satellite image and digital map survey of around 1,000 circular and rectilinear settlements, 152 rectilinear cashel and enclosure sites were identified. Of these, 66 were the subject of a field survey of their remaining above-ground features. This paper looks at drystone rectilinear cashels and enclosures as a monument class, comparing aspects of their construction and associated features, such as gateways and souterrains, with the better-known circular cashel settlements. Two types of settlement are identified among the rectilinear cashels -- those with heavy walls and a more common, lighter-walled type. The available evidence points to both types being first constructed during the early medieval period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mountain depopulation in the Mediterranean region over the past decades has led to a decline in the use and maintenance of agricultural terraces and consequently the collapsing of dry-stone walls, which can increase soil erosion rates and downstream sedimentation. A field experiment has been set up on a degrading terraced hillslope in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus, to quantify the effectiveness of terrace maintenance on protecting cultivated land against soil erosion. The monitored site is cultivated with grapes. The terrace riser (22 m long) that forms the linear outlet of the hillslope has 11.4 m of standing dry-stone wall and 10.6 m of collapsed wall. It has been instrumented with seven 1 m wide sediment traps, three on standing sections of the wall and four on collapsed sections. When dry, sediment was collected from the traps after rainfall events, from December 2015 to November 2017. Uncertainties in the drainage areas of the 31.5-m long slope were quantified both for the terrace wall and for the individual traps through hydrologic delineations based on a detailed topographic survey. The sediment data were complemented by laser scanner surveys that were conducted in November 2015, May 2016 and April 2017, on a dry-stone terrace wall upslope from the outlet section. Wall degradation was assessed from the consecutive 3D model reconstructions. Rainfall was 469 mm in the first year and 515 mm in the second year and the average erosivity was 1148 MJ mm ha−1 h−1 y−1. The average soil erosion rate was 2.4 Mg ha−1 y−1, when linear drainage areas are considered (693 m2), 3.2 Mg ha−1 y−1 when the borders are delineated with the topographic data (520 m2). Nearly half of the soil erosion (43%) occurred during two very intense rainfall events (maximum 30-min intensity exceeding 35 mm h−1), out of the 34 monitored events. Erosion from standing terrace sections was 3.8 less than the erosion from the collapsed sections. For the scanned terrace wall, soil erosion from the standing sections was 2.2 lower than from the degraded sections. The laser scanner surveys identified some preferential erosion paths, but failed to recognize single stone collapses, whereas possible wall displacement was masked by scanning artifacts. The sediment traps were found to be an effective method for understanding and quantifying soil erosion in terraced mountain environments, while further research is needed to develop a more rigorous acquisition procedure for laser scanner surveys to derive useful information on wall degradation. Highlights • On a terraced vineyard, we measured a soil erosion rate from 2.4 to 3.2 Mg ha−1 y−1. • Dry-stone wall degradation increased soil loss by a factor of 3.8. • Erosivity index (EI30) has strong correlation with measured soil loss. • Soil loss is affected by drainage area and degraded dry-stone wall sections in it. • Laser scanner could not furnish reliable information on dry-stone wall degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dry stone retaining walls (DSRWs) are vernacular structures which can be found all over the world. Most of them have been built in the 19th century but they can be as old as two hundred years. Because of decades of neglect, many of these walls are highly damaged; however, in the absence of national rules for this peculiar heritage, any intervention on these constructions is made difficult. A number of former studies in France have tried to settle the bases for a standard aimed at designing slope DSRWs. This paper complement those works in order to give clues for a seismic design of slope DSRWs following the simplified approach proposed by the Eurocode 8 and denoted pseudo-static approach. Firstly, scaled-down experiments have been carried out using a mock-up composed of a wall made of clay bricks retaining a sandy backfill. This mock-up was then tilted and the characteristics of the system at failure were reported and analysed. A particularity of failure in DSRWs is that the failure surface crosses the wall leaving a part of it intact. Secondly, an analytic method based on the limit equilibrium using the Coulomb wedge theory has been designed to predict the tilting angle and validated on the basis of these experimental results. Finally, some preliminary implications for the seismic design of DSRWs have been proposed for walls built in moderate seismicity areas which is typical of mainland France. In low seismicity zones, the extra width required to bear the seismic motion does not exceed 25 % of the width identified through the static design. Results are also given for more critical cases associated to zones of higher seismicity as well as for different wall configurations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ffestiniog Railway’s drystone retaining walls have far exceeded the expected life of modern drystone structures. The on-site infrastructure team required confidence in the continued operation of the railway as an important feature of North Wales’s industrial history and as a tourist attraction. Due to the individual nature of the Ffestiniog’s walls, application of a standard structural appraisal method to all structures was not appropriate. Geometric surveys and material testing enabled a structural analysis to be completed using the Thrust Line software (designed by Chris Mundell and Paul McCombie), in order to highlight critical or likely failure modes for these complex structures. This stability check combined with site observation, awareness of contributing factors and the experience of site personnel allows a risk-based, tailored condition appraisal procedure to be developed for each of the Railway’s individual drystone walls. In the case of many historic loadbearing drystone structures, complex history, lack of construction records and inability to appraise condition beyond the visible wall face lead to intrusive repair or replacement with a modern alternative, often at significant cost to the asset owner. This piece of work proposed an alternative approach to understanding structural behaviour in order to avoid unnecessary intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Dry‐stone wall agricultural terraces are widespread all over the world and represent an effective retaining structure for farming purposes. However, dry‐stone walls can be subjected to degradation and damages, with complex and expensive maintenance. Such high costs are the most relevant drivers of land abandonment in many agricultural areas of Europe and of other continents, resulting in a progressive loss of cultivable surface, cultural heritages, and landscape traditional elements. Therefore, a more effective and efficient management of these systems is needed. As a contribution, in the present paper, an innovative modelling approach system is proposed. The presented model is able to describe hydrological processes on a terraced slope and to analyze the destabilizing pressures acting on the retaining dry‐stone walls in the most critical portion of each terrace. The model structure is based on the results of multidisciplinary field monitoring campaigns on water circulation in terraced landscapes carried out on a terraced vineyard (Lamole, Tuscany, Italy). A monitoring station was set up on a recently reconstructed dry‐stone wall, to measure the parameters influencing the pressures acting on the retaining structure. The results show a good capability of the model to predict the distribution and intensity of stresses on the instrumented dry‐stone wall over time and space. Such stresses were related to the earth pressure and to hydrostatic pressures (water accumulation), without the occurrence of soil saturation. Detecting the most failure‐prone portions of a terraced system, this approach can support landowners and land planners in managing these complex and fragile environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the mountain region of Aosta Valley, NW Italy, grapevine were, in the past, traditionally grown on terraces supported by dry stone walls. Since the 1960s, terrace systems were gradually abandoned in favour of an up and down slope row orientation. Tillage and chemical weeding are common soil management techniques adopted in vineyards with high slope gradient, to maintain bare soil. Both techniques expose, to varying degrees, the soil to degradation, favouring runoff and soil losses. Although many studies have focused on the effects of soil water erosion in vineyards, there is still a gap in the evaluation of long‐term soil erosion rates in vineyards located on very steep slopes (higher than 35%). In order to evaluate long‐term soil erosion on a very steep vineyard, a study was carried out on a 44‐year‐old vineyard located at about 900 m asl. The vine rows were oriented up and down the slope, which is about 50% (29°). The inter‐row soil management of the vineyard included chemical weeding and, in the first year after plantation, the adoption of irrigation and hilling‐up/taking‐out the soil around the vines. The soil loss was determined adopting the technique of botanical benchmark. According to this methodology, the estimated total soil lost over 44 years was about 692 Mg ha−1, with average annual soil loss of 15·7 Mg ha−1 year−1, confirming that the water and management practices adopted in the vineyard, besides the high slope gradient, have played a relevant role in determining the high erosion rate. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In arid areas prone to desertification and soil erosion, the effectiveness of radical bench terracing in reducing drought risk is dependent on its correct implementation. However, the relationship between proper terracing implementation and the landscape capacity of holding soil moisture is still not understood. Moreover, spatial patterns of Soil Water Content (SWC) within the same terraced hillslope are weakly studied. The present paper analyses SWC variations in four newly implemented terraced sites in Tigray Region, Ethiopia. In all sites, terraced areas show SWC significantly higher than non-terraced ones, with the lower part of the terraced hillslope more humid than the others. A Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) analysis highlighted significant dependency of SWC from the date of analysis, the position in the terraced slope, and its significant positive correlation with the percent of Water Stable Aggregates (WSA) analyzed at the study sites. Since high soil disturbance induces low soil aggregates stability, this result shows how low soil disturbance can significantly increase SWC of radical terraces. Overall, the results of the present paper testify the good performances of bench terraces in Northern Ethiopia in terms of soil water conservation, and can represent a benchmark study informing future terracing implementation in some arid and semi-arid agricultural areas of the world.

The ‘Triple R’ approach on the restoration of dry stone walls, using recognizable, reversible and respectful constructive techniques is here illustrated. A set of restoration procedures are explained and applied to a UNESCO World Heritage site in Al-Baleed (Salalah, Sultanate of Oman) in the ‘Land of Frankincense’. The procedures were adapted in an innovative way to take into account the climate features of the Indian Ocean area (specifically, the effects of the monsoon season). All the restoration procedures aimed at conserving the site’s original architectural features by using only suitable stones and materials found on-site. Specific procedures have been adopted to consolidate walls, gates, foundations and sloping surfaces. Simple on-site mechanical tests and evaluation methods have been developed for a quick assessment of the safety level of the restored walls to ease future archaeological excavations. The application is related to a waterfront side of the ancient city built around the ninth century and added to over the next five centuries. These restoration procedures allowed for further archaeological excavations with new findings is here described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viticulture has contributed to shaping cultural landscapes in several regions across all continents. Recent farming intensification is causing landscape homogenization and biodiversity loss in several of those areas, but knowledge about the impacts on biodiversity in vineyards is still scarce. Simplified agro-ecosystems resulting from intensification host mainly generalist and common species, which still play a key role in the regulation of ecosystems and in the provision of ecosystem services. We assessed the abundance of 11 common bird species at 47 linear transects in a vineyard-dominated landscape in Trentino (NE Italy), in both spring and winter, and analysed abundance variation in relation to three independent groups of predictors: landscape, management, and topographic-climatic variables. In the majority of species (7), abundance was primarily or considerably affected by landscape attributes. However, an additional 5 species were largely affected by management practices, often with conspicuous seasonal differences. Overall, landscape and management heterogeneity positively affected the abundance of 6 species. Vineyard cover (and in particular the new spalliera trellising system) was negatively related with the abundance of 6 species, with the strongest impacts occurring in winter. On the contrary, the cover of marginal habitats had major positive effects over 8 species. Hedgerows, tree rows, and dry stone walls, as well as traditional pergola vineyards and landscape and management heterogeneity should be conserved or restored in viticultural landscapes to promote the abundance of common bird species. This strategy would ensure the maintenance of the ecosystem services they provide, while promoting the general sustainability of the agroecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dry-stacked masonry construction consists of individual units stacked directly without mortar at the bed and head joints. Although dry-stacked construction offers many benefits including speed of construction and minimal need for skilled labor, its use has been limited by lack of technical information. This paper presents the results of an experimental program investigating the compressive strength of dry-stacked assemblies built from nonproprietary standard concrete masonry units. The program included 124 tests of dry-stacked prisms; variables in the program included compressive strength of the units and treatment of the interface. Roughness of the interface was found to have significant effect on the load-displacement behavior and ultimate capacity of dry-stacked assemblies. Based on the experimental results, a unit strength method is presented for qualifying dry-stacked systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY In this paper, the authors present experimental results and observations of four full-scale standard fire tests on single-leaf steel doors and steel frames installed in 3 × 3 m non-load-bearing partition walls. Three full-scale fire tests were performed on steel doors installed in lightweight partition walls constructed by using steel C-section studs with gypsum boards fixed on both sides. Two lightweight walls incorporated Rockwool cavity insulation, while the third lightweight wall was constructed without cavity insulation. The fourth fire test involved a steel door installed in a masonry partition wall. While the steel door leaf and door frames were identical in all four full-scale tests, only the steel door installed in the masonry wall achieved the desired fire resistance rating of 30 min. The integrity criterion for fire resistance was determined for the scenario when the door opened away from the furnace. The duration of fire resistance according to the integrity criterion was found to be 38, 25 and 19 min for the same door when installed in masonry wall, uninsulated lightweight wall and insulated lightweight wall respectively. For the thermal insulation criterion of fire resistance, the scenario of the door opening into the fire was found to be the most onerous. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of crustaceans in the identification of different pond types, including 'Mediterranean Temporary Ponds' (sensu 'Habitats' Directive) and ponds characterised by a range of hydroperiods. Thus, we performed a limnological study in the Alta Murgia National Park (central Apulia), conducting a three-year monitoring programme in 19 ponds, both temporary and permanent. Occurrence data for macrophytes and quantitative samples of crustaceans were collected contemporaneously with measures of water variables and environmental features. Based on macrophyte assessment, half of the studied waterbodies were found to include Mediterranean Temporary Pond priority habitats, and the possible relationships with the crustacean assemblages were analysed. All ponds were grouped into three different classes depending on their hydroperiod. Data analysis revealed that (i) there was a significant relationship between the distribution of crustaceans and macrophytes; (ii) crustacean richness was highest in ponds belonging to the shortest hydroperiod class considered and (iii) the different hydroperiod classes were associated with specific crustacean assemblages. This study indicates that crustaceans-in addition to macrophytes-can be used as an effective tool for the identification of different pond types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The structural fire behavior of typical load-bearing drywall systems, consisting of light cold-formed steel (CFS) studs, sheathed with single or double layers of gypsum plasterboards and air cavity or mineral wool insulation, is investigated. For that purpose, an efficient numerical modeling approach with satisfying accuracy is developed and validated against experimental and numerical results available in the literature. Heat transfer and structural analyses of the investigated drywall assemblies are carried out, employing the computational tools ANSYS CFX and ADINA, respectively. Transient heat transfer analyses provide the spatial and temporal temperature variation over the drywall assembly, which is assumed to be exposed to the standard ISO 834 fire curve from one side. Thermal simulation results are then introduced in the subsequent structural analyses, where the load-bearing capacity of the CFS studs under fire conditions is estimated, by means of Geometry and Material Nonlinear Analyses accounting for Imperfections (GMNIA). The load-bearing capacity assuming uniform cross-sectional temperature distributions is also evaluated and compared to the respective predictions under non-uniform temperature profiles. Results obtained by varying the imposed load or the applied temperature (fire duration), are compared to predictions of existing and literature-proposed fire design guidelines. EN 1993-1-2 provisions lead to average underestimation of the load-bearing capacity by approximately 20%, while the literature-proposed methods are found to underestimate the load-bearing capacity by 5% to 15%. The limitation of using a critical temperature of 350°C for the structural fire design of thin-walled sections is found to be rather conservative, since the investigated CFS studs are able to exhibit satisfying fire performance also under higher temperature conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dry stone retaining walls are vernacular structures that can be found in many places around the world and were mainly built to reduce slope erosion and to allow agricultural practices. Their stability is essentially warranted by the global wall weight and the capacity of individual blocks to develop friction at contact. The arrangement of these hand-placed blocks contributes also to the stability of the wall. A new interest arose in these structures in the last years, first due to the necessity to repair damages inherent to any built heritage, but also to their possible advantages regarding sustainability. Several studies have tried to address the behavior of slope dry stone retaining walls, whereas few conclusive studies have been performed concerning road dry stone retaining walls. In this latter case, the loading implies, apart from the backfill, the existence of a concentrated force on the backfill surface. The failure of such masonry work is accompanied by true three-dimensional deformations. This study is a first attempt to provide a better understanding of the mechanical behavior of road dry stone retaining walls. It involves a small-scale prototype with clay bricks for the wall, and steel blocks, acting as a concentrated loading on the backfill surface at a given distance from the inward wall face. Steel blocks have been superposed until wall failure. A numerical study based on these experiments is then performed by means of a mixed discrete-continuum approach. The numerical model was able to retrieve the average value of the concentrated force triggering failure found in the experiences, except when the concentrated loading is very close to the wall. Nevertheless, the results provided by this study are considered as encouraging even if further work is required to definitely state about the validity of such a numerical technique for the study of actual road dry stone retaining walls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dry-stone retaining walls (DSRW) have been tipped as a promising solution for sustainable development. However, before recently, their behavior is relatively obscure. In this study, discrete element method (DEM) approach was applied to simulate the plane strain failure of these walls. A commercial DEM package (PFC2D™) was used throughout this study. The authors used a fully discrete approach; thus, both the wall and the backfill were modeled as discrete elements. The methodology for obtaining the micromechanical parameters was discussed in detail; this includes the three mechanical sub-systems of DSRWs: wall, backfill and interface. The models were loaded progressively until failure, and then the results were compared with the full-scale experimental results where the walls were loaded, respectively, with hydrostatic load and backfill. Despite its complexity and its intensive calculation time, DEM model can then be used to validate a more simplified approach. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before colonialism, heritage sites such as Khami were considered resting places for ancestors, valued more for the spirit of place than their monumentality. In this context, local custodians hardly intervened with the fabric of the site. With the introduction of modern conservation principles, which persist to this day, vegetation control and wall restorations became part of routine conservation measures. This paper discusses drystone wall restorations carried out at Khami between 2000 and 2015 focusing on the disjuncture between indigenous and local concepts of heritage, concerned with access and preserving the spirit of ancestors, and ‘western’ principles of restoration. It argues that while ignoring the structural disintegration of Khami would have resulted in possible delisting from the World Heritage List, the ‘neglect’ which Khami experienced was in tandem with its local social context; being a resting place for ancestors. While the reconstructions interfered with an acceptable physical context of local beliefs, restorations maintained the integrity of the site as a tourist destination with positive local economic benefits. Although compromises are by their nature unsatisfactory, modern heritage conservation in Africa must adapt and improvise to achieve a mix of local and international practices to reflect changed and changing realities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

There is a distinctive type of desert kite in southern Arabia. On low-resolution aerial photographs it has the form of a Y and a closer look reveals a scissor-shaped structure. The head and the tails are very distinctive: the head is an open structure with a continuous wall on the right side and many chambers on the left; the tail consists of many piles of stones arranged in a straight line, and only towards the head does it change into a continuous wall. These impressions, together with the-now known-wide distribution of desert kites in non-arid regions as well, lead to the idea that the stone alignments of Carnac in France could also have served as animal traps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The desert kites of Jordan, usually stone-built enclosures with long trailing walls, are part of a broader phenomenon found throughout specific parts of the Middle East, with similar types of structures known widely across the world. Most commonly, the enclosures are used for trapping large herds of ungulates. Those found in Jordan are more densely packed and of much greater variety than those elsewhere in the Middle East. This paper offers a review of the current state of knowledge concerning desert kites in Jordan, including new data on patterns of orientation and recent studies that help to strengthen the case for a Neolithic date for some of the kite systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Desert kites are found across a vast region. This paper presents a detailed description of kites from the Harrat al-Shaam region (Jordan) and proposes a comparative study, as well as an analysis of the morphology and organisation of kites known from Mount Aragats (Armenia) and the Ustyurt Plateau (Kazakhstan). A complete inventory of the structures in each region highlights their architectural characteristics and their spatial distribution in the landscape. Some preliminary results were obtained by comparing both regions: the core area in eastern Jordan, and peripheries-sometimes very distant-such as in the Caucasus and Central Asia. Chronological data were also compared, when available. All these different and complementary aspects were finally combined with satellite imagery analyses. The interactive process between satellite images and fieldwork observations has enriched both approaches, while yielding preliminary key elements of interpretation for a better understanding of the kite phenomenon on a global scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has become increasingly common in archaeology to utilise virtual globes for regions where few if any aerial photographs are available. Saudi Arabia is one such and it has proved especially useful for identifying and mapping the prolific structures commonly referred to as the 'Works of the Old Men', most prominently kites. These are now generally accepted as hunting traps for migratory animals. Although a few were known in Saudi Arabia, the increasing availability of high-resolution 'windows' on virtual globes has revealed them in ever-larger numbers. Such windows can be exploited to define and map archaeological remains and develop methodologies. One particular region with such potential is Harret Khaybar. Progressive additions of high-resolution windows for this harra have revealed 917 kites. Beyond mere counting, analysis allows the development of typologies and identification of locally distinctive forms-notably the 'barbed' form; mapping and the interpretation of patterns in relation to geology, soils, water sources and vegetation; and associations with other 'works', with scope for creating at least relative chronologies. The present study provides data and preliminary analysis, and guidance for such a holistic ground-based archaeological project should the opportunity arise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kites have often been interpreted as traps built for hunting purposes. This is based on ethnographic parallels, and recurrent references of the habitat range of animals and possible migration routes. Faunal remains from limited zones and from a selection of sites around kites were studied, particularly from northern Syria and eastern Jordan. When considering the wide distribution of kites in the Middle East and Central Asia, some patterns of animal exploitation and hunting strategies are explored in testing the hypothesis of a cynegetic function of the kites across these regions. As a component of the Globalkites project, the zooarchaeological analyses are used to investigate data regarding the function of kites by reconsidering faunal assemblages recorded around their distribution area, as well as by mapping the historical animal distribution in the Near East and Caucasus. The function of kites is discussed on a large scale, through intensive analyses of the subsistence economy, animal habitat and hunting activities carried out by regional human communities. Cross-referencing these variables with the surrounding environment, settlement patterns and animal ethology and their role in ancient societies, leads to an assessment of the current hypothesis on the function of kites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]