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The RAON accelerator is currently under construction to generate and accelerate stable ions and rare isotopes for various kinds of scientific programs, and it will be completed by the end of 2021. In the RAON accelerator, the beams generated by using ion sources such as electron cyclotron resonance ion source and isotope separation on-line can be used in high energy experiments such as a beam irradiation system and a muon spin rotation/relaxation/resonance system after having been accelerated by low energy and high energy superconducting linacs. After the high energy superconducting linac, the beam passes through the high energy beamline and then collides with the target. In 2015, the lattices of the high energy beamlines were designed achromatically to minimize the emittance growth. However, as the specification of magnets in the beamline was changed after first lattice design, a beam dynamics simulation has been performed newly, and beam loss studies have also been conducted. Here, we will present the simulation results for the beam dynamics and describe the beam loss studies performed on the high energy beamlines of the RAON accelerator.

As the beam intensity increases in modern high-power accelerators, self-field effects of the beam become significant and it is the utmost goal to minimize the beam loss of halo particles by avoiding or minimizing contributions of various halo mechanisms. There are two distinct families of space-charge halo mechanisms in high-intensity linear accelerators, and yet they need to be differentiated: resonances (single particle resonances or incoherent resonances) and instabilities (parametric resonances or coherent resonances). What we call resonances are resonances of the beam particle excited through the space-charge nonlinear multipoles. What we call instabilities (or envelope instabilities) are instabilities of the beam envelope. Instabilities are also called parametric resonances because they are parametric resonances of the envelope equation. They would better be called envelope parametric resonances to distinguish them from particle parametric resonances. Resonances and instabilities may look alike in the phase space, and yet they have distinct differences. Instabilities (or envelope parametric resonances) do not have the resonant frequency component. Various orders of resonances and instabilities are presented along with the beam distributions with which the particular mechanism is observed.

Studies of the machine imperfections in the RAON superconducting linac (SCL) that employs normal conducting (NC) quadrupoles were done to assess the tolerable error budgets of the machine imperfections that ensure operation of the beam. The studies show that the beam loss requirement is met even before the orbit correction and that the beam loss requirement is met even without the MHB (multi-harmonic buncher) and VE (velocity equalizer) thanks to the RAON’s radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) design feature. For the low energy section of the linac (SCL3), a comparison is made between the two superconducting linac lattice types: one lattice that employs NC quadrupoles and the other that employs SC solenoids. The studies show that both lattices meet the beam loss requirement after the orbit correction. However, before the orbit correction, the lattice employing SC solenoids does not meet the beam loss requirement and can cause a significant beam loss, while the lattice employing NC quadrupoles meets the requirement. For the lattice employing SC solenoids, care must be taken during the beam commissioning.

For modern high-intensity linear accelerators , the well-known envelope instability and recently reported fourth-order particle resonance impose a fundamental operational limit (i.e., zero-current phase advance should be less than 90 ° ). Motivated by the stability of spinning flying objects, we propose a novel approach of using spinning beams to surpass this limit. We discovered that spinning beams have an intrinsic characteristic that can suppress the impact of the fourth-order resonance on emittance growth and the associated envelope instability.

The Rare Isotope Accelerator of Newness (RAON) accelerator is under construction to generate and accelerate the stable ion beams and the rare isotope beams for various kinds of experiment programs. Especially, the post accelerator section was designed to be able to separately accelerate and transport the stable ion beams created by the superconducting electron cyclotron resonance ion source (ECR-IS) and the rare isotope beams created by the Isotope Separation On-Line (ISOL) system. However, recently, the research of the simultaneous operation of the stable ion beams and the rare isotope beams has been conducted to more efficiently satisfy the a wide range of beam requirements of the experimental halls. For the operation, we has modified the lattice of the post low energy beam transport (LEBT) section for the injection of the rare isotope beam and the next lattice after the low energy superconducting linac (SCL3) section for the extraction of the accelerated beam in the post accelerator section of the RAON accelerator. In this paper, the new lattice designs of the injection and extraction parts will be presented and we will describe the results of the beam dynamics simulations for the simultaneous operation of the two kinds of beams.

The RAON accelerator has been built to create and accelerate stable heavy-ion beams and rare isotope beams. The stable heavy-ion beams are generated by the superconducting electron cyclotron resonance ion source and accelerated by the low energy superconducting linac SCL1. The beams accelerated by the SCL1 are re-accelerated by the high energy superconducting linac SCL2 for the generation of rare isotope beams by using the in-flight fragmentation system or are put to use in the low energy experimental halls, which include the neutron science facility and the KOrea Broad acceptance Recoil spectrometer and Apparatus after having passed through the low energy beam lines which have long deflecting sections. At the end of each beam line in the low energy experimental halls, the beams should meet the targets of the two facilities with the specific requirements satisfied. Namely, if the beam is to be sent safely and accurately to the targets and simultaneously, satisfy the requirements, an achromatic lattice design needs to be applied in each beam line. In this paper, we will present the lattice design of the low energy beam lines and describe the results of the beam dynamics simulations. In addition, the correction of the beam orbit, which is distorted by machine imperfections, will be discussed.

The driver accelerator of the RAON is a superconducting linear accelerator consisting of low beta cavities. Studies of various failure modes are performed through extensive machine imperfection studies. It is found that the linac is tolerant of any single superconducting cavity loss except the first nine upstream QWR cavities. Studies also find that the linac design is tolerant of 10% upstream-section cavity failure with the design-beta cavities. It is also found that in case of 10% cavity failure, orbit correction becomes indispensable. On the other hand, if cavity betas of the HWR and the SSR2 increase by 4% from the design values, the linac beam loss starts to increase rapidly, when 10% upstream-section cavities become inoperable. This paper shows quantitatively that significant beam losses can be caused in case of cavity faults, when the exit energy of the upstream section is not high enough. In case of a quadrupole doublet failure in the QWR section, beam loss of about 70 W/m is generated in the immediate downstream and beam operation is not feasible.

Since the finding of the space charge fourth order 4σ=360° resonance [Jeon et al., 2009 [3]], studies have been carried out to better understand the fourth order resonance and the envelope instability in high intensity linear accelerators. The questions remained unanswered under what conditions the envelope instability is excited or suppressed following the development of the fourth order resonance. Simulations suggest that the variation of σo and σ along the linac, the halo particles and the resonance islands of the fourth order resonance play an important role in exciting or suppressing the envelope instability after the fourth order resonance is manifested for initially well-matched beams. Here σ(σo) is the depressed (zero-current) phase advance per cell. The envelope instability is excited from the mismatch generated by the fourth order resonance, 1) when σo is maintained approximately constant or increases along the linac with σo>90° and 2) when the extent of the fourth order resonance shrinks, as σ increases approaching 90°. On the other hand, when σ stays almost constant (maintaining the fourth order resonance) or when σo decreases and gets close to 90° (getting out of the envelope instability), the envelope instability is suppressed and the halo particles formed by the fourth order resonance preserves a four-fold structure in the phase space.

We investigated optimum choices of accelerator parameters for superconducting-technology-based heavy-ion linear accelerator (linac) to achieve the high beam quality at an in-flight target with a high beam power of 400 kW. The superconducting linac system is designed to provide a stable-ion beams from protons to uranium with energies of 600 MeV and 200 MeV/u, respectively. The linac optics is also designed such that the effects of envelope instability, parametric resonance between the transverse and longitudinal planes, beam steering effect due to asymmetric field in quarter-wave resonance (QWR) cavities, and emittance growth in charge strippers due to the straggling effect, parametric resonance, and envelope instability become as small as possible. The dimensions of the warm and cold sections in the low-energy section which mainly determine the longitudinal acceptance of the linac are optimized to achieve a longitudinal acceptance larger than 27 keV/u-ns enabling stable operation. The tracking simulation for the uranium beam was performed and we achieved the transverse normalized rms emittance of 0.095 mm-mrad and longitudinal rms emittance of 2.10 keV/u-ns at the end of designed linac without uncontrolled beam losses along the linac. In order to estimate the degradation of the machine performance due to imperfections such as misalignment, ripple of the magnet power source, and phase and power variation of the RF source, the particle tracking simulation was performed and the uncontrolled beam loss with the machine imperfection without the orbit and optics correction was less than 1 W/m which is a condition required for machine operation. The optimum scheme for orbit correction in the low-energy linac is investigated based on the transfer matrix of the elements and the validation of the scheme is confirmed by the particle tracking simulation using TRACK code.

In RAON heavy ion accelerator, beams generated by superconducting electron cyclotron resonance ion source (ECR-IS) or Isotope Separation On-Line (ISOL) system are accelerated by lower energy superconducting linac and high energy superconducting linac. The accelerated beams are used in the high energy experimental hall which includes bio-medical and muon-SR facilities, after passing through the high energy beam transport lines. At the targets of those two facilities, the stable and small beams meeting the requirements rigorously are required in the transverse plane. Therefore the beams must be safely sent to the targets and simultaneously satisfy the two requirements, the achromatic condition and the mid-plane symmetric condition, of the targets. For this reason, the lattice design of the high energy beam transport lines in which the long deflecting sections are included is considered as a significant issue in the RAON accelerator. In this paper, we will describe the calculated beam optics satisfying the conditions and present the result of particle tracking simulations with the designed lattice of the high energy beam transport lines in the RAON accelerator. Also, the orbit distortion caused by the machine imperfections and the orbit correction with correctors will be discussed.

RAON has been designed as a rare isotope accelerator facility for the Rare Isotope Science Project (RISP). The main accelerator for the in-flight system accelerates uranium and proton beams to 200 MeV/u and 660 MeV, respectively, with a beam power of 400 kW. The front-end system consists of two 28 GHz electron cyclotron resonance ion sources (10 keV/u), a low-energy beam transport (LEBT) line with two 90° bends, a multi-harmonic buncher with three different rf frequencies, a radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ), and a medium-energy beam transport line (MEBT) with three rebunchers and eight quadrupoles. A driver linac system consisting of Linac-1 and Linac-2 has been designed to optimize the beam and accelerator parameters so as to meet the required design goals. A charge stripper section is located between Linac-1 and Linac-2. To optimize these designs, we performed start-to-end simulations with the beams from the LEBT to Linac-2 using 1 million macroparticles. We present the resulting beam dynamics to evaluate the performance of the accelerator. Our simulation results predict that the transmission rate of the uranium beam is 85.8% from the LEBT to Linac-2. The designed facility is expected to achieve the required beam loss condition of less than 1 W/m. The RAON driver linac lattice design was developed and an overview of the beam dynamics is presented.

In RAON heavy ion accelerator, generally, the In-flight Fragmentation (IF) and Isotope Separation On-Line (ISOL) systems are employed in order to produce various isotope beams. Out of the isotope beams, the beams generated by the ISOL system are transported from the low energy linac SCL3 to the high energy driver linac SCL2. The post-accelerator to the driver linac transport (P2DT) section that consists of the charge stripper section, the 180° bending section, and the SCL2 matching section is placed between the SCL3 and the SCL2. In this P2DT section, however, the transverse and longitudinal emittance growth can aggravate the beam acceptance of the SCL2. Besides, the growth at the P2DT 180° bending section is considered a significant issue because of the unexpected achromatic effect. Therefore an achromatic and isochronous lattice design should be devised to prevent the transverse and longitudinal emittance from increasing while the multi-charge beams flow through the bending section. This study reports an improved design for the achromatic and isochronous lattice up to the second-order. After satisfying the first-order achromatic and isochronous condition by adjusting the field strength of quadrupoles with this design, the simple and efficient method will be utilized with the aim of getting the minimum number of sextupoles. The research on the collimator for the charge selection at the bending section will be also represented by using the designed lattice.

The driver linac of the heavy ion accelerator called RAON will be built in Korea and it utilizes four types of superconducting cavities. The SCL1 (Superconducting Linac 1) consists of the QWR (Quarter Wave Resonator, β=0.047, 81.25 MHz) cavities and the HWR (Half Wave Regenerator, β=0.21, 162.5 MHz) cavities. The SCL2 (Superconducting Linac 2) consists of the SSR1 (Single Spoke Resonator1, β=0.3, 325 MHz) and the SSR2 (β=0.51, 325 MHz) cavities. The manufacturing of the prototypes of the SSR1 and SSR2 cryomodules is on-going and the current status is reported. The issues included are the estimation of the thermal load, the P&ID of the cryomodules, as well as the results of the thermal and structural designs of the cryomodule components such as the two phase pipe, support posts and flow pipes.

The charge stripping section of the Rare isotope Accelerator Of Newness (RAON), which is one of the critical components to achieve a high power of 400 kW with a short lianc, is a source of transverse emittance growth. The dominant effects are the angular straggling in the charge stripper required to increase the charge state of the beam and chromatic aberrations in the dispersive section required to separate the selected ion beam from the various ion beams produced in the stripper. Since the main source of transverse emittance growth in the stripper is the angular straggling, it can be compensated for by changing the angle of the phase ellipse. Therefore the emittance growth is minimized by optimizing the Twiss parameters at the stripper. The emittance growth in the charge selection section is also minimized by the correction of high-order aberrations using six sextupole magnets. In this paper, we present a method to minimize the transverse emittance growth in the stripper by changing the Twiss parameters and in the charge selection section by using sextupole magnets.

Properties of the thermal radiation from arbitrary fractional dimension are investigated. Generalized blackbody radiation for arbitrary dimension can be obtained and the energy density is shown as a function of arbitrary dimension as well as temperature. Maximum frequency factor representing the relation between most probable photon energy and thermal energy is shown as a function of arbitrary fractional dimension. It is also shown how to measure the arbitrary fractional dimension of the body with thermal radiation.

The Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) accelerator delivers a one mega-Watt beam to a mercury target to produce neutrons used for neutron scattering materials research. It delivers ~ 1 GeV protons in short (< 1 us) pulses at 60 Hz. At an average power of ~ one mega-Watt, it is the highest-powered pulsed proton accelerator. The accelerator includes the first use of superconducting RF acceleration for a pulsed protons at this energy. The storage ring used to create the short time structure has record peak particle per pulse intensity. Beam commissioning took place in a staged manner during the construction phase of SNS. After the construction, neutron production operations began within a few months, and one mega-Watt operation was achieved within three years. The methods used to commission the beam and the experiences during initial operation are discussed.

It is shown that the sixth-order 6σ=720° (or 6∶2) resonance is manifested for high-intensity beams of linear accelerators through the space charge potential when the depressed phase advance per cell σ is close to and below 120° but no resonance effect is observed for σ above 120°. Simulation studies show a clear emittance growth by this resonance and a characteristic sixfold resonance structure in phase space. To verify that this is a resonance, a frequency analysis was conducted and a study was performed of crossing the resonance from above and from below the resonance. Canonical perturbation is carried out to show that this resonance arises through perturbation of strong 2σ=360° (2∶1) and 4σ=360° (4∶1) space charge resonances. Simulations also show that the space charge 6σ=360° (or 6∶1) resonance is very weak.

For the 4σ = 360° space-charge resonance in high intensity linear accelerators, the emittance growth is surveyed for input Gaussian beams, as a function of the depressed phase advance per cell σ and the initial tune depression (σo – σ). For each data point, the linac lattice is designed such that the fourth order resonance dominates over the envelope instability. The data show that the maximum emittance growth takes place at σ ≈ 87° over a wide range of the tune depression (or beam current), which confirms that the relevant parameter for the emittance growth is σ and that for the bandwidth is σo – σ. An interesting four-fold phase space structure is observed that cannot be explained with the fourth order resonance terms alone. Analysis attributes this effect to a small negative sixth order detuning term as the beam is redistributed by the resonance. Analytical studies show that the tune increases monotonically for the Gaussian beam which prevents the resonance for σ > 90°. Frequency analysis indicates that the four-fold structure observed for input Kapchinskij-Vladmirskij beams when σ

A new type of Beam Loss Monitor (BLM) system is being developed for use in the European Spallation Source (ESS) linac, primarily aiming to cover the low energy part (proton energies between 3-100 MeV). In this region of the linac, typical BLM detectors based on charged particle detection (i.e. Ionization Cham-bers) are not appropriate because the expected particle fields will be dominated by neutrons and photons. Another issue is the photon background due to the RF cavities, which is mainly due to field emission from the electrons from the cavity walls, resulting in brems-strahlung photons. The idea for the ESS neutron sensi-tive BLM system (ESS nBLM) is to use Micromegas detectors specially designed to be sensitive to fast neutrons and insensitive to low energy photons (X and gammas). In addition, the detectors must be insensitive to thermal neutrons, because those neutrons may not be directly correlated to beam losses. The appropriate configuration of the Micromegas operating conditions will allow excellent timing, intrinsic photon back-ground suppression and individual neutron counting, extending thus the dynamic range to very low particle fluxes., Proceedings of the 61\textsuperscript{st} ICFA ABDW on High-Intensity and High-Brightness Hadron Beams, HB2018, Daejeon, Korea