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3. How to give a spider a heart attack: Evaluating cardiac stress reactions of Trichonephila and Argiope spiders.

Author

Davis, Andrew K. and Vu, Christina

Abstract

All animal species, from arthropods to vertebrates, must deal with occasional stressors in their lives, though most research on this has been focused on vertebrates. Meanwhile, our understanding of stress reactions in arthropod species like spiders is nascent. In the United States, a non‐native orb‐weaving spider, Trichonephila clavata (‘jorō’ spider), is spreading as is its already‐established cousin in the United States, T. clavipes (golden silk spider). Prior study has revealed how these two species have a unique behavioural reaction to physical stressors, whereby they remain in a thanatosis state for a prolonged period compared with other species. Here, we investigate the physiological stress reactions of these Trichonephila spiders by evaluating how each species' dorsal vessel contractions (heart rates) become elevated after being subjected to a non‐lethal stressor. For comparison, we also evaluate two similarly‐sized orb weavers, Argiope aurantia (garden spider) and A. trifasciata (banded garden spider). We record baseline heart rates of inactive, resting, spiders in our lab, then restrain them under an electronic, ‘optocardiographic’, sensor for 10 min, to record their ‘stressed’ heart rates. Argiope aurantia has a pronounced heart rate elevation, for reasons unknown. We observe that all spider heart rates increase during restraint, though each has a species‐specific pattern of elevation over time under restraint. Notably, heart rates of both Trichonephila spiders are less variable under stress, since they tend not to struggle during restraint. Meanwhile, both Argiope spiders frequently struggle, leading to marked fluctuations in cardiac output. The stress reactions of Trichonephila spiders could be characterized as ‘even‐tempered’, which may factor into their ability to live in habitats with frequent disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2024
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4. Ciliated Epibionts Modify the Cardiac Stress Reaction to Perceived Predation in Daphnia.

Author

Davis, Andrew K. and Gloege, Helen

Subjects
DAPHNIA, ACUTE stress disorder, DAPHNIA magna, PREDATION, HEART rate monitors, HEART rate monitoring
Abstract

When animals perceive an acute stressor like a predator, they typically undergo a suite of physiological changes that function to improve survival during the encounter, such as elevation in cardiac output, to supply more energy to muscles. If bodily energy is limited, such as by parasites or infections, these functions could become less efficient and lessen host survival. In the aquatic world of microorganisms, individuals can become colonized by other organisms on their surface (epibionts), which could sap energy from their host from their weight, or even compete with the host for food. Here, we tested if one epibiont (a ciliated protozoan, Vorticella spp.) affects its hosts' ability to mount a physiological stress reaction. We collected wild daphnia (Daphnia ambigua) that had varying burdens of these on their bodies and exposed them to a simulated stressor (crushed daphnia, to simulate nearby predation) under a microscope while monitoring for changes in their heart rates in real time. Out of 121 daphnia, those with no Vorticella epibionts showed no meaningful changes in their heart rate after exposure, but those with light or heavy burdens showed immediate elevations (within 5 min). Moreover, the heart rates of heavily burdened daphnia continued to rise for 1.5 h thereafter, to as much as 17% higher than at baseline. These patterns were unexpected, as they suggest that the ciliated epibionts act to elevate their hosts' physiological reaction, rather than dampen it, perhaps by churning the water column around the host, thereby enhancing the chemical alarm cue. The procedures used in this study may be useful for future investigations into the acute stress reactions of daphnia or other microorganisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2024
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13. How the monarch got its spots: Long-distance migration selects for larger white spots on monarch butterfly wings.

Author

Davis, Andrew K., Herkenhoff, Brenden, Vu, Christina, Barriga, Paola A., and Hassanalian, Mostafa

Subjects
*ANIMAL migration, *MONARCH butterfly, *ANIMAL flight, *INSECT flight, *DRAG force, *AEROSPACE engineers
Abstract

Elucidating the adaptations that promote flight in animals can aid the understanding of evolution and species divergence, and/or provide inspiration for aerospace engineering and the design of better aerial vehicles. The famed long-distance migration of monarch butterflies in North America still holds many questions and opportunities for inspiration. For example, there is little research on whether the monarch's primary wing colors themselves (black, orange, or white) have any aerodynamic or migration function. Dark colors on wings of other animals have recently been shown to aid flight by enhancing solar absorption, which reduces drag forces. However, too much black surface could be problematic for monarchs, which are exposed to increasing amounts of solar energy along their flightpath. This paper describes the results of two related investigations that attempt to elucidate the importance of wing color to the monarch migration. By measuring the color proportions of nearly 400 monarch wings collected at different stages of their journey, we found, surprisingly, that successful migrants tended to have less black on their wings (about 3% less), but also more white pigment (about 3% more); monarchs have a band of light-colored marginal wing spots. Second, image analysis of museum specimens revealed migratory monarchs had significantly larger white spots, proportional to the wing area, than most non-migratory, New World Danaid butterflies, which argues spot size has evolved along with migratory behavior. Combined, these findings strongly suggest that the long-distance migration itself selects for larger white spots every fall, so that only those individuals with large spots will survive to pass on their genes. Further experimental work is needed to elucidate how the spots aid the migration, but it is possible that they enhance aerodynamic efficiency; other work by the authors demonstrates how alternating white and black pigment on wings can reduce drag. These results will serve as a useful starting point for such endeavors, which should improve understanding of one of the world's most fascinating animal migrations, and also provide practical knowledge for the field of aerospace engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2023
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30. Supplemental file S1 - description of procedures from A poor substitute for the real thing: captive-reared monarch butterflies are weaker, paler and have less elongated wings than wild migrants

Author

Davis, Andrew K., Farran M. Smith, and Ballew, Ashley

Subjects
animal structures, fungi
Abstract

For many animals and insects that are experiencing dramatic population declines, the only recourse for conservationists is captive-rearing. To ensure success, reared individuals should be biologically indistinct from those in the wild. We tested if this is true with monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus, which are increasingly being reared for release by citizens and commercial breeders. Since late-summer monarchs should be as migration capable as possible for surviving the arduous long-distance migration, we evaluated four migration-relevant traits across two groups of captive-reared monarchs (n = 41 and 42) and one group of wild-caught migrants (n = 41). Monarchs (descendants of wild individuals) were reared from eggs to adulthood either in a warm indoor room next to a window, or in an incubator that mimicked late-summer conditions. Using an apparatus consisting of a perch mounted to an electronic force gauge, we assessed ‘grip strength' of all groups, then used image analysis to measure forewing size, pigmentation and elongation. In three of the four traits, reared monarchs underperformed compared to wild ones, even those reared under conditions that should have produced migration-ready individuals. The average strength of reared monarchs combined was 56% less than the wild group, even when accounting for size. Their orange wing colour was paler (an indicator of poor condition and flight ability) and their forewings were less elongated (elongation is associated with migration propensity) than wild monarchs. The reason(s) behind these effects is unknown but could stem from the frequent disturbance and/or handling of reared monarchs, or the fact that rearing removes the element of natural selection from all stages. Regardless, these results explain prior tagging studies that showed reared monarchs have lower migratory success compared to wild.

Published
2020
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35. Morphological and molecular characterization of Xyo pseudohystrix Travassos & Kloss, 1958 (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Odontotaenius disjunctus (Illiger, 1800) (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from USA and discussion on its taxonomic status

Author

Morffe, Jans, García, Nayla, Davis, Andrew K., Hasegawa, Koichi, and Carreno, Ramon A.

Subjects
Rhabditida, Nematoda, Hystrignathidae, Animalia, Biodiversity, Taxonomy, Secernentea
Abstract

Morffe, Jans, García, Nayla, Davis, Andrew K., Hasegawa, Koichi, Carreno, Ramon A. (2019): Morphological and molecular characterization of Xyo pseudohystrix Travassos & Kloss, 1958 (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Odontotaenius disjunctus (Illiger, 1800) (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from USA and discussion on its taxonomic status. Zootaxa 4619 (2): 391-400, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4619.2.13

Published
2019

36. Lepidonema Cobb 1898

Author

Morffe, Jans, García, Nayla, Breugelmans, Karin, Hasegawa, Koichi, and Davis, Andrew K.

Subjects
Chromadorea, Nematoda, Hystrignathidae, Animalia, Biodiversity, Spirurida, Lepidonema, Taxonomy
Abstract

Lepidonema magnum Morffe & Garc��a, 2010 Fig. 1 A���H, Fig. 2 A���D Lepidonema magnum Morffe & Garc��a, 2010: 6 ���9, fig. 3 A���I, fig. 4 A���G Material examined. Vouchers: 6♀♀, Cuba, Pinar del R��o province, Vi��ales, Sendero ���Maravillas de Vi��ales���; in Passalus interstitialis; IV/2018; M. Iturriaga, C. Hern��ndez coll.; CZACC 11.7115 ��� 11.7120. 2♀♀, same data as the latter; MNHNSD 05.0020 ��� 05.0021. Vouchers: 3♀♀, Cuba, Artemisa province, Sierra del Rosario, El Taburete; in Passalus interstitialis; 8/IV/ 2012; E. Pardo coll.; CZACC 11.7121���11.7123. Vouchers: 4♀♀, Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, Sierra de Casas; in Passalus interstitialis; IV/2014; J. Morffe, N. Garc��a, M. Olcha coll.; CZACC 11.7124���7127. Vouchers: 3♀♀, Cuba, Sancti Sp��ritus province, Trinidad, Topes de Collantes, Hotel ���Los Helechos���; in Passalus interstitialis; V/2013; E. Fonseca coll.; CZACC 11.7128���11.7130. Vouchers: 4♀♀, Cuba, Camag��ey province, Sierra de Cubitas, Reserva Ecol��gica ���Limones-Tuabaquey���; in Passalus interstitialis; XII/2015; J. Morffe, N. Garc��a coll.; CZACC 11.7131���7134. Redescription. Female. Body comparatively robust, widening gradually posterior to head, reaching its maximum width at level of the vulva, then narrowing gradually towards tail. Sub-cuticular striae present. Cephalic end bluntly rounded. Cervical cuticle armed with ca. 67 opposite rows of spines, from the base of the first cephalic annule to the midpoint of the basal bulb in some specimens or a short distance further down its base in other specimens. First row of spines with 16 scale-like elements, their distal ends rounded, ca. 5 ��m in length. Spines remain scale-like, with rounded tips until ca. the level of the 12 th row, where they become pointed, in that range of rows the spines increase their length to ca. 10 ��m. At ca. the level of the 14 th row some columns of spines duplicate, increasing their number to ca. 20 rows at level of the end of the spiny region. Spines from the last rows are shorter (ca. 4 ��m) and pointed. Cuticle markedly annulated in the spiny region (annuli ca. 5 ��m in length), further down this region the annuli become shorter (ca. 1 ��m) and less marked. Lateral alae well-developed, extend from a short distance after the end of the spiny region (ca. 30 ��m) to the level of the vulva. One cuticular, slightly curled, barely prominent lip surrounding the triradiate oral opening. Head bearing eight slightly ellipsoidal cephalic papillae (larger diameter/shorter diameter ratio ca. 1.3) arising from the external edge of the lip. Cephalic papillae are almost equidistant, separated from each other by a distance of ca. 4 ��m. Amphids lateral, their opening reniform and located at a small cuticular protuberance at level of the external edge of the lip. First cephalic annule comparatively long, truncate, with convex margins and set-off from the head by a marked groove. Stoma short and wide, surrounded by an oesophageal collar, barely extending beyond the level of the first cephalic annule. Oesophagus consists of a muscular, sub-cylindrical procorpus, its base slightly expanded (ca. twice as wide as the anterior region), well differentiated from the short, cylindrical isthmus. Basal bulb rounded, valve-plate welldeveloped. Intestine simple, sub-rectilinear, its fore region slightly dilated, formed by a single layer of large, polygonal cells. Rectum comparatively long. Anus not prominent. Nerve ring encircling procorpus at ca. 45% of its length. Excretory pore ventral, located at ca. 0.7 body-widths posterior to the basal bulb. Vulva a median transverse slit located near the midbody, its lips slightly prominent. Vagina muscular, forwardly directed. Genital tract didelphic-amphidelphic, both ovaries reflexed. Distal end of the anterior ovary reflexed posterior to the excretory pore, distal flexure ca. 1.5 body-widths long. Distal end of the posterior ovary reflexed at ca. 2.5���3 body-widths before the level of the anus, distal flexure ca. 1���1.5 body-widths long. Oocytes in single rows. A fusiform spermatheca present in the posterior uterus, near the level of the basal end of the anterior ovary. Such spermatheca is absent in the anterior branch of the genital tract. Eggs ellipsoidal, smooth-shelled. Gravid females with 1��� 6 eggs at a time in the uterus (more frequently two eggs). Tail conical, subulate, ending in a fine tip. Male. Unknown. Remarks. Morffe & Garc��a (2010) described L. magnum based on light microscopy observations. In their description the authors mentioned the presence of eight small, paired cephalic papillae in the head. The current SEM studies show that the cephalic papillae are not paired but almost equidistant. Such arrangement is a feature quite uncommon in Hystrignathidae since most of the taxa studied by SEM or with light microscopy that included en face views show paired papillae (i.e. Hunt 1981, 1982; Van Waerebeke & Remillet 1982; Morffe & Garc��a 2013a, b; Morffe et al. 2015; 2018a, b). Line drawings of Van Waerebeke (1973) show Malagasian species of Artigasia Christie, 1934 with the cephalic papillae widely spaced, giving an equidistant appearance: i.e. A. andringitrae Van Waerebeke, 1973; A. dispar Van Waerebeke, 1973; A. lata Van Waerebeke, 1973 and A. semialata Van Waerebeke, 1973. The presence of a spermatheca in the posterior uterus was not observed in the original description of the species (Morffe & Garc��a 2010). This structure has not been previously recorded in Hystrignathidae but it has been noted in species from the Thelastomatidae and Travassosinematidae, such as Desmicola skrjabini Adamson, 1984 (Thelastomatidae) and Travassosinema claudiae Morffe & Hasegawa, 2017 (Adamson 1984; Morffe & Hasegawa 2017). These authors recorded the presence of a sac-like seminal receptacle in the posterior uterus of both species. The pinworm nematodes (Oxyuridomorpha) are quite unique by their haplodiploid reproduction, with diploid females that originate from fertilized eggs and haploid males derived from unfertilized eggs (Adamson 1994). Adamson (1984) attributed the existence of a single spermatheca as a mechanism for regulating sex ratios, since presumably, the posterior branch of the genital tract (with the spermatheca) could produce fertilized eggs and the anterior branch (without spermatheca) could only produce unfertilized eggs. This could assure the presence of both, females and males among the progeny. At present, L. magnum is only known from its type locality: Escaleras de Jaruco, Mayabeque province in Western Cuba (Morffe & Garc��a 2010). Therefore, all the populations currently studied constitute new locality records. Vi��ales, Pinar del R��o province is the westernmost record. The population from Sierra de Casas, Isla de la Juventud is the only known location outside of the main island of the Cuban archipelago. The records from Topes de Collantes, Sancti Sp��ritus province and Sierra de Cubitas, Camag��ey province extends the distribution of the species to Central Cuba, the latter being the easternmost. The individuals from the aforementioned new localities coincide morphologically and morphometrically (Table 2) with the type specimens of the species. DNA studies. ML and BI analyses were performed for the D2-D3 LSU rDNA, the 18S SSU rDNA and a concatenated dataset of both markers. The trees of the latter dataset were the ones with the highest values of bootstrap support. Since the topology of both ML and BI trees was identical only the former is shown (Fig. 3). L. magnum is sister taxon to Hystrignathus rigidus Leidy, 1850 in a strongly supported monophyletic clade. Such an arrangement is also supported by the morphological similarities between these species. Both, L. magnum and H. rigidus present opposite rows of spines that are scale-like and pointed, respectively. Also, the female genital tract is didelphic-amphidelphic in these taxa. The clade formed by the two Longior Travassos & Kloss, 1958 species is situated basally to the clade of Lepidonema + Hystrignathus. This arrangement is supported by the morphological differences between Longior and the two latter genera: unarmed vs. spiny cervical cuticle, digitiform vs. rounded cephalic papillae and monodelphic-prodelphic vs. didelphic-amphidelphic genital tract. Additionally, the procorpus of Longior is cylindrical and elongated whereas it is claviform in Hystrignathus Leidy, 1850 and sub-cylindrical in Lepidonema. Coynema poeyi (Coy, Garc��a & ��lvarez, 1993) is located basal to the clade formed by the aforementioned hystrignathid species. This result is consistent with Morffe et al. (2018b) for the D2-D3 domains of the 28S LSU rDNA. As discussed by Morffe et al. (2018b), Coynema presents several characteristic features that differentiated this taxon from the rest of the genera included in the analysis, namely paired and elliptic cephalic papillae arranged in a V-like pattern, the sub-cylindrical procorpus with a basal dilation and the anterior region of the intestine inflated, forming a sac-like structure., Published as part of Morffe, Jans, Garc��a, Nayla, Breugelmans, Karin, Hasegawa, Koichi & Davis, Andrew K., 2019, Morphological and molecular characterization of Lepidonema magnum Morffe & Garc��a, 2010 (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Passalus interstitialis Eschscholtz, 1829 (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from Cuba and new locality records for the species, pp. 221-230 in Zootaxa 4551 (2) on pages 223-227, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4551.2.6, http://zenodo.org/record/2622820, {"references":["Morffe, J. & Garcia, N. (2010) Two new species of nematode (Oxyurida, Hystrignathidae) parasites of Passalus interstitialis Escholtz, 1829 (Coleoptera, Passalidae) from Cuba and a new locality for Longior similis Morffe, Garcia & Ventosa, 2009. Zookeys, 49, 1 - 11. https: // doi. org / 10.3897 / zookeys. 49.402","Hunt, D. J. (1981) On Artigasia horridospina n. sp., Longior semialata n. sp., Mentecle magnifica n. sp., Paraxyo ensicrinatus n. sp. (Oxyurida: Hystrignathidae) and Pulchrocephala? pulchrocephala Travassos, 1925 (Oxyurida: Pulchrocephalidae). Systematic Parasitology, 3, 33 - 52. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / BF 00012238","Hunt, D. J. (1982) Hystrignathus ferox n. sp. and Xyo xiphacanthus n. sp. (Oxyurida: Hystrignathidae) with additional data on Carlosia tijucana Travassos & Kloss, 1957. Systematic Parasitology, 4, 59 - 68. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / BF 00012229","Van Waerebeke, D. & Remillet, M. (1982) Description de deux nouvelles especes d'Hystrignathus et redefinition du genre (Nematoda: Oxyuroidea). Revue Nematologie, 5, 285 - 294.","Morffe, J. & Garcia, N. (2013 a) Batwanema gen. n. and Chokwenema gen. n. (Oxyurida, Hystrignathidae), new nematode genera as parasites of Passalidae (Coleoptera) from the Democratic Republic of Congo. ZooKeys, 361, 1 - 13. https: // doi. org / 10.3897 / zookeys. 361.6351","Morffe, J. & Garcia, N. (2013 b) Two new genera of nematode (Oxyurida, Hystrignathidae) parasites of Passalidae (Coleoptera) from the Democratic Republic of Congo. ZooKeys, 257, 1 - 15. https: // doi. org / 10.3897 / zookeys. 257.3666","Morffe, J., Garcia, N. & Davis, A. K. (2015) Redescription of the females of Hystrignathus rigidus Leidy, 1850 (Nematoda: Hystrignathidae), parasites of Odontotaenius disjunctus (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from eastern USA. Zootaxa, 3941 (1), 131 - 136. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3941.1.8","Morffe, J., Garcia, N., Breugelmans, K. & Adams, B. J. (2018 a) Morphological examination and phylogenetic analysis clarify the taxonomic status of Cuban Longior Travassos & Kloss, 1958 (Nematoda: Thelastomatoidea: Hystrignathidae). Zootaxa, 4399 (4), 521 - 542. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4399.4.3","Morffe, J., Garcia, N., Breugelmans, K., Adams, B. J. & Hasegawa, K. (2018 b) Morphological and molecular characterization of Coynema poeyi (Coy, Garcia & Alvarez, 1993) (Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Antillanax pertyi (Kaup, 1869) (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from Cuba and new locality records for the species. Zootaxa, 4497 (1), 29 - 40. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4497.1.2","Van Waerebeke, D. (1973) Les oxyuroides associes aux Passalidae a Madagascar. Cahiers ORSTOM, Serie Biologie, 18, 3 - 43.","Adamson, M. L. (1984) Anatomical adaptation to haplodiploidy in the oxyuroid (Nematoda) Desmicola skrjabini n. sp. from a Diplopod in Gaboon. Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparee, 59, 95 - 99. https: // doi. org / 10.1051 / parasite / 1984591095","Morffe, J. & Hasegawa, K. (2017) Morphological and molecular characterization of Travassosinema claudiae n. sp. (Oxyuridomorpha: Travassosinematidae) from the Japanese millipede Parafontaria laminata (Attems, 1909) (Polydesmida: Xystodesmidae). Zootaxa, 4282 (1), 166 - 178. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4282.1.10","Adamson, M. L. (1994) Evolutionary patterns in life histories of Oxyurida. International Journal for Parasitology, 24, 1167 - 1177. https: // doi. org / 10.1016 / 0020 - 7519 (94) 90189 - 9"]}

Published
2019
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37. Morphological and molecular characterization of Lepidonema magnum Morffe & García, 2010 (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Passalus interstitialis Eschscholtz, 1829 (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from Cuba and new locality records for the species

Author

Morffe, Jans, García, Nayla, Breugelmans, Karin, Hasegawa, Koichi, and Davis, Andrew K.

Subjects
Chromadorea, Nematoda, Hystrignathidae, Animalia, Biodiversity, Spirurida, Taxonomy
Abstract

Morffe, Jans, García, Nayla, Breugelmans, Karin, Hasegawa, Koichi, Davis, Andrew K. (2019): Morphological and molecular characterization of Lepidonema magnum Morffe & García, 2010 (Nematoda: Oxyuridomorpha: Hystrignathidae) from Passalus interstitialis Eschscholtz, 1829 (Coleoptera: Passalidae) from Cuba and new locality records for the species. Zootaxa 4551 (2): 221-230, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4551.2.6

Published
2019

49. Healing while parasitized: impact of a naturally‐occurring nematode during energy‐intensive wound‐healing in a beetle.

Author

Davis, Andrew K., Calderon, Lexi, Lefeuvre, Jake, Sims, Stuart, Pearce, Jana, and Prouty, Cody

Subjects
*OXYGEN consumption, *WOUND healing, *BEETLES, *PARASITOIDS, *HEALING, *ENERGY medicine, *WOUNDS & injuries
Abstract

The rigours of the daily lives of insects sometimes lead to minor injuries and wounds, which must be healed to avoid entry of pathogens and to resume normal function. Such healing requires energy, which must be diverted from other bodily reserves. What happens if energy reserves are already low, as would occur in individuals coping with internal parasites? This question is addressed in the presemt study, using horned passalus beetles (Odontotaenius disjunctus) and their naturally‐occurring nematode Chondronema passali. Oxygen consumption rates are tested at rest, as well as after an experimental wound is applied, to evaluate energy requirements of wound‐healing in parasitized and nonparasitized hosts. Furthermore, wound‐healing rates are visually tracked with a numerical scoring system to directly measure the cost of parasitism on healing. At rest, parasitized beetles show no elevation in respiration (oxygen consumption). After wounding, the oxygen consumption of parasitized beetles is 10% higher than that in nonparasitized beetles. Beetles with moderate‐ to heavy worm burdens have slower healing than those with few or no nematodes. These results show that this parasite carries little cost to the host during day‐to‐day activities, whereas, during times of immediate energy demand, there is a cost; hosts require more energy to repair wounds, and the wounds take longer to close. This conclusion leads to the question of whether this parasite is truly benign, and how many other apparently benign parasites, in insects or other animals, have similar 'hidden' effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2020
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