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Simple Summary: The present report describes the first molecular detection of a gammacoronavirus in a free-ranging striped dolphin coinfected with cetacean morbillivirus and found stranded on the Croatian coastline in 2022. The virus was detected in a heart sample and appeared different from previously identified cetacean gammacoronaviruses. This finding underscores the necessity of including this pathogen into routine diagnostics for stranded dolphins to gather important epidemiological data on coronavirus prevalence and its potential role in causing disease. This case report presents the first molecular identification of a gammacoronavirus in a free-ranging striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) that was found stranded along the Croatian coastline in 2022. The dolphin exhibited a concurrent infection with cetacean morbillivirus. The gammacoronavirus strain was amplified and sequenced from heart tissue imprinted on an FTA®card, revealing a notable genetic distance (approximately 8%) from previously characterized cetacean gammacoronaviruses. This finding highlights the importance of including gammacoronaviruses in routine diagnostics for stranded dolphins to gather epidemiological data on their prevalence and potential role in causing disease in cetaceans. This study sets the premises for a further understanding of the diversity and distribution of gammacoronaviruses in marine mammals and highlights the necessity for ongoing surveillance of emerging infectious diseases in wild populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) is a key pathogen for the swine industry at a global level. Nine genotypes, differing in epidemiology and potentially virulence, emerged over time, with PCV-2a, -2b, and -2d being the most widespread and clinically relevant. Conversely, the distribution of minor genotypes appears geographically and temporally restricted, suggesting lower virulence and different epidemiological drivers. In 2022, PCV-2e, the most genetically and phenotypically divergent genotype, was identified in multiple rural farms in North-eastern Italy. Since rural pigs often have access to outdoor environment, the introduction from wild boars was investigated. Methods: Through a molecular and spatial approach, this study investigated the epidemiology and genetic diversity of PCV-2 in 122 wild boars across different provinces of North-eastern Italy. Results: Molecular analysis revealed a high PCV-2 frequency (81.1%, 99/122), and classified the majority of strains as PCV-2d (96.3%, 78/81), with sporadic occurrences of PCV-2a (1.2%, 1/81) and PCV-2b (2.5%, 2/81) genotypes. A viral flow directed primarily from domestic pigs to wild boars was estimated by phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses. Discussion: These findings attested that the genotype replacement so far described only in the Italian domestic swine sector occurred also in wild boars. and suggested that the current heterogeneity of PCV-2d strains in Italian wild boars likely depends more on different introduction events from the domestic population rather than the presence of independent evolutionary pressures. While this might suggest PCV-2 circulation in wild boars having a marginal impact in the industrial sector, the sharing of PCV-2d strains across distinct wild populations, in absence of a consistent geographical pattern, suggests a complex interplay between domestic and wild pig populations, emphasizing the importance of improved biosecurity measures to mitigate the risk of pathogen transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) causes substantial economic losses globally. Different aMPV subtypes circulate in various regions, with subtypes A and B prevalent in the Old World and aMPV-C in North America. Recently, aMPV-A and aMPV-B have been detected in the U.S., raising questions about their introduction pathways. This study used phylodynamic and phylogeographic analyses of the G protein sequences to investigate potential importation routes. Findings suggest that aMPV-B in the U.S. likely originated from Eastern Asian strains related to European ones, with wild bird migration through the Beringian crucible being a probable pathway, similarly to avian influenza. aMPV-A appears to have Mexican origins, with strains related to Asian ones, pointing again to wild bird migration rather than trade or illegal importation. Given the limited information on wild birds' role in aMPV spread and the significant impact on the poultry industry, further wild bird surveys are recommended. Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) has been identified as an important cause of respiratory and reproductive disease, leading to significant productive losses worldwide. Different subtypes have been found to circulate in different regions, with aMPV-A and B posing a significant burden especially in the Old World, and aMPV-C in North America, albeit with limited exceptions of marginal economic relevance. Recently, both aMPV-A and aMPV-B have been reported in the U.S.; however, the route of introduction has not been investigated. In the present study, the potential importation pathways have been studied through phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses based on a broad collection of partial attachment (G) protein sequences collected worldwide. aMPV-B circulating in the U.S. seems the descendant of Eastern Asian strains, which, in turn, are related to European ones. A likely introduction pathway mediated by wild bird migration through the Beringian crucible, where the East Asian and Pacific American flight paths intersect, appears likely and was previously reported for avian influenza. aMPV-A, on the other hand, showed a Mexican origin, involving strains related to Asian ones. Given the low likelihood of trade or illegal importation, the role of wild birds appears probable also in this case, since the region is covered by different flight paths directed in a North–South direction through America. Since the information on the role of wild birds in aMPV epidemiology is still scarce and scattered, considering the significant practical implications for the poultry industry demonstrated by recent U.S. outbreaks, further surveys on wild birds are encouraged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Simple Summary: The infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a major pathogen in the poultry industry due to its profound impact on the immune systems of young chickens. Various genetic types with distinct biological characteristics have been described. In this study, we evaluated the expression of different cytokines in the bursa of Fabricius and thymus over a 28-day experimental infection with two strains from the G1a (Classical) and G6 (ITA) genogroups. The G6 strain appeared to induce a more immediate immunosuppression, and unlike the G1a strain, did not show signs of gene expression recovery by the end of the study. This finding aligns with the higher replication level previously reported for the G6 and with the clinical outcome, as this genotype, although subclinical, has often been considered more immunosuppressive. Unlike other studies that focused on shorter periods post-infection, the patterns observed in this study were highly variable and complex, depending on the strain, tissue, and time point. Therefore, this study not only confirms the effect of strain/genogroup on immune system modulation but also highlights the importance of extended monitoring post-infection to better understand the intricate patterns and interactions with the host response. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a significant burden for poultry production and market due to both direct disease and induced immunosuppression. In the present study, the expression of different cytokines in the bursa of Fabricius and thymus was evaluated during a 28-day-long experimental infection with two strains classified in the G1a (Classical) and G6 (ITA) genogroups. Although both strains significantly affected and modulated the expression of different molecules, the G6 strain seemed to induce a delayed immune response or suppress it more promptly. A recovery in the expression of several mediators was observed in the G1a-infected group at the end of the study, but not in the G6 one, further supporting a more persistent immunosuppression. This evidence fits with the higher replication level previously reported for the G6 and with the clinical outcome, as this genotype, although subclinical, has often been considered more immunosuppressive. However, unlike other studies focused on shorter time periods after infection, the patterns observed in this paper were highly variable and complex, depending on the strain, tissue, and time point, and characterized by a non-negligible within-group variability. Besides confirming the strain/genogroup effect on immune system modulation, the present study suggests the usefulness of longer monitoring activities after experimental infection to better understand the complex patterns and interactions with the host response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian reovirus (ARV) infection can cause significant losses to the poultry industry. Disease control has traditionally been attempted mainly through vaccination. However, the increase in clinical outbreaks in the last decades demonstrated the poor effectiveness of current vaccination approaches. The present study reconstructs the evolution and molecular epidemiology of different ARV genotypes using a phylodynamic approach, benefiting from a collection of more than one thousand sigma C (σC) sequences sampled over time at a worldwide level. ARVs' origin was estimated to occur several centuries ago, largely predating the first clinical reports. The origins of all genotypes were inferred at least one century ago, and their emergence and rise reflect the intensification of the poultry industry. The introduction of vaccinations had only limited and transitory effects on viral circulation and further expansion was observed, particularly after the 1990s, likely because of the limited immunity and the suboptimal and patchy vaccination application. In parallel, strong selective pressures acted with different strengths and directionalities among genotypes, leading to the emergence of new variants. While preventing the spread of new variants with different phenotypic features would be pivotal, a phylogeographic analysis revealed an intricate network of viral migrations occurring even over long distances and reflecting well-established socio-economic relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The GI-19 lineage of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) has emerged as one of the most impactful, particularly in the "Old World". Originating in China several decades ago, it has consistently spread and evolved, often forming independent clades in various areas and countries, each with distinct production systems and control strategies. This study leverages this scenario to explore how different environments may influence virus evolution. Through the analysis of the complete S1 sequence, four datasets were identified, comprising strains of monophyletic clades circulating in different continents or countries (e.g., Asia vs. Europe and China vs. Thailand), indicative of single introduction events and independent evolution. The population dynamics and evolutionary rate variation over time, as well as the presence and intensity of selective pressures, were estimated and compared across these datasets. Since the lineage origin (approximately in the mid-20th century), a more persistent and stable viral population was estimated in Asia and China, while in Europe and Thailand, a sharp increase following the introduction (i.e., 2005 and 2007, respectively) of GI-19 was observed, succeeded by a rapid decline. Although a greater number of sites on the S1 subunit were under diversifying selection in the Asian and Chinese datasets, more focused and stronger pressures were evident in both the European (positions 2, 52, 54, 222, and 379 and Thai (i.e., positions 10, 12, 32, 56, 62, 64, 65, 78, 95, 96, 119, 128, 140, 182, 292, 304, 320, and 323) strains, likely reflecting a more intense and uniform application of vaccines in these regions. This evidence, along with the analysis of control strategies implemented in different areas, suggests a strong link between effective, systematic vaccine implementation and infection control. However, while the overall evolutionary rate was estimated at approximately 10−3 to 10−4, a significant inverse correlation was found between viral population size and the rate of viral evolution over time. Therefore, despite the stronger selective pressure imposed by vaccination, effectively constraining the former through adequate control strategies can efficiently prevent viral evolution and the emergence of vaccine-escaping variants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a ubiquitous immunosuppressive pathogen which is a severe burden to the poultry industry. Due to frequent mutation and reassortment events, its double-stranded, bi-segmented RNA genome displays a considerable heterogeneity, which in turn produces profound differences in antigenicity and pathogenicity. In recent years, the investigation of IBDV epidemiology has greatly benefited from the proposal of multiple phylogenetic classification systems which prompted the execution of molecular surveys all over the world, producing a wealth of standardized and easily sharable data. The present epidemiological survey was conducted in six Near East and Persian Gulf countries to characterize the field IBDVs circulating in the region. Ninety-three broiler flocks, immunized with different vaccination protocols, were investigated over a one-year period by collecting eight individual bursal samples at a time. Using molecular assays targeting both genome segments, field IBDVs belonging to four genotypes were detected from 42 flocks across all investigated countries. While traditional very virulent IBDVs (genotype A3B2) represented a minority, multiple atypical IBDV genotypes (A3B1, A4B1 and A6B1) were found to circulate in most of the region. Many of the detected strains were related to sequences from other continents, supporting the involvement of the Near and Middle East in complex networks of viral spreading. The obtained results, combined with the available literature, allowed us to update the epidemiological picture, hopefully favouring the identification of epidemiological threats and the planning of effective monitoring and control strategies. Different field IBDVs were found to circulate in the Near and Middle East. Multiple atypical genotypes (A3B1, A4B1, A6B1) were found to circulate extensively. Traditional very virulent IBDVs (A3B2) were a minority of the detected strains. Viral exchanges can be hypothesized between the region and different continents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the fictional domain exhibits a prima facie freedom from real-world moral constraints, certain fictive imaginings seem to deserve moral criticism. Capturing both intuitions, this paper argues for double-standard moralism, the view that fictive imaginings are subject to different moral standards than their real-world counterparts. I show how no account has, thus far, offered compelling reasons to warrant the moral appropriateness of this discrepancy. I maintain that the normative discontinuity between fiction and the actual world is moderate, as opposed to one that leaves fictive engagements wholly exempt from moral evaluations. I propose a way of addressing the gamer's dilemma that is compatible with a moderate kind of discontinuity. Finally, I contend that the audience is justified in adopting deviant moral attitudes in fictional situations because their consequences largely differ from those that analogous real-world events would have. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stranded animals offer valuable information on marine mammal physiology and pathology; however, the decomposition state of the carcasses and lack of a rigorous cold chain for sample preservation can sometimes discourage diagnostic analyses based on nucleic acid detection. The present paper aims at evaluating the reliability of FTA® card tissue imprints as an alternative matrix to frozen tissues for virological analyses based on biomolecular methods. Given the contribution of Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) to strandings and the increase of herpesvirus detection in cetaceans, these two pathogens were selected as representative of RNA and DNA viruses. Dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) and herpesvirus presence was investigated in parallel on tissue imprints on FTA® cards and frozen tissues collected during necropsy of dolphins stranded in Italy. Samples were analysed by nested RT-PCR for DMV and nested-PCR for herpesvirus. Only one animal was positive for herpesvirus, hampering further considerations on this virus. DMV was detected in all animals, both in FTA® card imprints and tissue samples, with differences possibly related to the decomposition condition category of the carcasses. Tissue sampling on FTA® cards seems a promising alternative to frozen tissues for biomolecular analyses, especially when ensuring adequate storage and shipment conditions for frozen tissues is difficult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]