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This paper demonstrates the implications of adopting an approach to measuring poverty that takes into account the lifetime experience of individuals rather than simply taking a static or cross-sectional perspective. Our approach follows the theoretical innovations in Hoy and Zheng (2008) which address various aspects of the specific pattern of any poverty spells experienced by an individual as well as a possible retrospective consideration that an individual might have concerning his life experience as a whole. For an individual, our perspective of lifetime poverty is influenced by both the snapshot poverty of each period and the poverty level of the permanent lifetime consumption; it is also influenced by how poverty spells are distributed over the lifetime. Using PSID data for the US, we demonstrate empirically the power of alternative axioms concerning how lifetime poverty should be measured when making pairwise comparisons of individual lifetime profiles of consumption (income) experiences. We also demonstrate the importance of taking a lifetime view of poverty in comparing poverty between groups by use of the classic FGT ‘snapshot’ poverty index in conjunction with period weighting functions that explicitly reflect concerns about the pattern of poverty spells over individuals’ lifetimes.

Historically, the measurement of poverty has been based on a set of key axioms but limited to a static framework. Features such as multidimensionality and the time factor have only recently been incorporated into poverty measurement. Several alternative approaches have been proposed. This chapter presents a review of the literature that proposes how to conceptualize or develop specific measures of inter-temporal or lifetime poverty, addressing measurement issues, alternative perspectives on frequency, and concerns about data availability. Reflecting this budding literature, the chapter presents alternative axioms that have been proposed to capture the various approaches to inter-temporal or lifetime poverty. A variety of combinations and alternative formulations of these axioms is considered. Concluding remarks underline the need for further research and focus on the role of empirical analysis in shedding light on issues such as mitigation and chronic poverty.

Utilizing results from partial poverty orderings, we characterize a class of generalized Sen poverty indices. A generalized Sen poverty index is defined as the weighted area between the line of zero-poverty and the censored generalized Lorenz curve. Unlike the original Sen index, the generalized Sen index can satisfy the key axioms for poverty measurement.

The head and neck region has a complex spatial and topological structure, three-dimensional (3D) computer model of the region can be used in anatomical education, radiotherapy planning and surgical training. However, most of the current models only consist of a few parts of the head and neck, and the 3D models are not detachable and composable. In this study, a high-resolution 3D detachable and composable model of the head and neck was constructed based on computed tomography (CT) serial images. First, fine CT serial images of the head and neck were obtained. Then, a color lookup table was created for 58 structures, which was used to create anatomical atlases of the head and neck. Then, surface and volume rendering methods were used to reconstruct 3D models of the head and neck. Smoothing and polygon reduction steps were added to improve 3D rendering effects. 3D computer models of the head and neck, including the sinus, pharynx, vasculature, nervous system, endocrine system and glands, muscles, bones and skin, were reconstructed. The models consisted of 58 anatomical detachable and composable structures and each structure can be displayed individually or together with other structures.

This paper applies a recently developed method of ranking socioeconomic inequality in health to ranking U.S. happiness from 1994 to 2012 using the GSS data. We also compare happiness between subgroups as decomposed by gender, race, and age. We establish and test a monotone condition of happiness – a richer person is likely to be happier. Under the monotone condition, standard tools of welfare and inequality ranking can be applied straightforwardly.