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Tiller number is a key component of plant architecture with direct effect on grain yield of wheat. Interspecific hybridization using wild relative species are promising approach for increasing wheat genetic diversity, including yield potential. Agropyron glael, a perennial hybrid of Thinopyrum intermedium and Th. ponticum has five subgenomes (J, Jst, Jvs, Jr, and St), making A. glael an important gene source for transferring useful agronomical traits into wheat. This work reports on development of a wheat-A. glael translocation line WT153397. Sequential in situ hybridizations with J-, St-, and D-genomic DNA probes and pSc119.2, Afa family, pTa71, and (GAA)7 DNA repeats, as well as an analysis using molecular markers specific for the wheat 6D chromosome, revealed the presence of a 6DS.6Jvs centric fusion in the translocation line. Field trials in low-input and high-input breeding nurseries over three growing seasons demonstrated high compensating ability of the Agropyron chromosome arm for the missing 6DL as spike morphology and fertility of WT153397 did not differ significantly from those of wheat parents. Moreover, the introgressed 6Jvs chromosome arm significantly increased the number of productive tillers, which manifested in the significantly higher grain yield potential relative to the parental wheat cultivars. The translocated chromosome could be flow-sorted in high purity providing an opportunity to employ chromosome genomics to identify Agropyron gene variant(s) responsible for the tillering capacity. The translocation line WT153397 represents an important genetic stock for functional genetic studies of tiller formation and useful breeding material to increase wheat yield potential.

Elongation factor TFIIS (transcription factor IIS) is structurally and biochemically probably the best characterized elongation cofactor of RNA polymerase II. However, little is known about TFIIS regulation or its roles during stress responses. Here, we show that, although TFIIS seems unnecessary under optimal conditions in Arabidopsis, its absence renders plants supersensitive to heat; tfIIs mutants die even when exposed to sublethal high temperature. TFIIS activity is required for thermal adaptation throughout the whole life cycle of plants, ensuring both survival and reproductive success. By employing a transcriptome analysis, we unravel that the absence of TFIIS makes transcriptional reprogramming sluggish, and affects expression and alternative splicing pattern of hundreds of heat-regulated transcripts. Transcriptome changes indirectly cause proteotoxic stress and deterioration of cellular pathways, including photosynthesis, which finally leads to lethality. Contrary to expectations of being constantly present to support transcription, we show that TFIIS is dynamically regulated. TFIIS accumulation during heat occurs in evolutionary distant species, including the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, dicot Brassica napus and monocot Hordeum vulgare, suggesting that the vital role of TFIIS in stress adaptation of plants is conserved.

Carotenoids contribute to a variety of physiological processes in plants, functioning also as biosynthesis precursors of ABA and strigolactones (SLs). SL biosynthesis starts with the enzymatic conversion of all-trans-β-carotene to 9-cis-β-carotene by the DWARF27 (D27) isomerase. In Arabidopsis, D27 has two closely related paralogs, D27-LIKE1 and D27-LIKE2, which were predicted to be β-carotene-isomerases. In the present study, we characterised D27-LIKE1 and identified some key aspects of its physiological and enzymatic functions in Arabidopsis. d27-like1-1 mutant does not display any strigolactone-deficient traits and exhibits a substantially higher 9-cis-violaxanthin content, which is accompanied by a slightly higher ABA level. In vitro feeding assays with recombinant D27-LIKE1 revealed that the protein exhibits affinity to all β-carotene isoforms but with an exclusive preference towards trans/cis conversions and the interconversion between 9-cis, 13-cis and 15-cis-β-carotene forms, and accepts zeaxanthin and violaxanthin as substrates. Finally, we present evidence showing that D27-LIKE1 mRNA is phloem mobile and D27-LIKE1 is an ancient isomerase with a long evolutionary history. In summary, we demonstrate that D27-LIKE1 is a carotenoid isomerase with multi-substrate specificity and has a characteristic preference towards the catalysation of cis/cis interconversion of carotenoids. Therefore, D27-LIKE1 is a potential regulator of carotenoid cis pools and, eventually, SL and ABA biosynthesis pathways.

Currently, limited knowledge is available about the combined effects of drought and light in case of cold stress. The investigation of quantum yield kinetics may help understand how plants utilize light under adverse environmental conditions. In the present study, mild drought helped preserve quantum yield in durum wheat (Triticum durum L.). The time necessary to reach the steady-state actual quantum yield corresponded with the cold sensitivity. Possible underlying mechanisms induced by drought, such as the reduction of malondialdehyde content, accumulation of D-sorbit, and glycine betaine, may have protected photosynthetic apparatus and integrity of light reactions. Low sucrose content at normal growth light might have caused stomatal closing and promoted photorespiration. In contrast to growth light, low light and moderate drought positively affected the sucrose accumulation and maintained glycolysis and energy production at low temperature. Present results emphasized the role of moderate drought as a sufficient acclimation factor against cold in durum wheat.

Carotenoids are colourful isoprenoids that contribute to a variety of physiological processes in plants. They also function as biosynthesis precursors of abscisic acid (ABA) and strigolactones (SLs). SL biosynthesis starts with the enzymatic conversion of all-trans-β-carotene to 9-cis-β-carotene by the DWARF27 (D27) isomerase. In Arabidopsis, D27 has two closely related paralogs, D27-LIKE1 and D27-LIKE2 which were predicted to be β-carotene-isomerases. Here we characterised D27-LIKE1 and identified some key aspects of its function. Arabidopsis d27-like1-1 mutant does not display any SL or karrikin-deficient traits, however, it exhibits a substantially higher 9-cis-violaxanthin content. In vitro feeding assays with recombinant D27-LIKE1 revealed that the protein exhibits affinity to all β-carotene isoforms but with an exclusive preference towards trans/cis conversions and the interconversion between 9-cis, 13-cis and 15-cis-β-carotene forms. Feeding experiments with zeaxanthin and violaxanthin isomers revealed that D27-LIKE1 accepts these xanthophylls as substrates. The remarkably higher 9-cis-violaxanthin content of the mutant is accompanied by a slightly higher ABA level. Finally, we presented evidence that D27-LIKE1 mRNA is phloem mobile and D27-LIKE1 is an ancient isomerase with long evolutionary history. In summary, we demonstrated that D27-LIKE1 is a carotenoid isomerase with multi-substrate specificity and has a characteristic preference towards the catalysation of cis/cis interconversion of carotenoids. Therefore, D27-LIKE1 is a potential regulator of carotenoid cis pools and eventually, SL and ABA biosynthesis pathways.

The proposed spectral control of the adaptive metabolic responses to drought was tested by the comparison of two wheat genotypes with different stress tolerance. White light was used as the reference to see the effects of the three altered ratios of blue, red, and far-red spectral components, which conditions are referred to as blue, pink, and far-red lights. Under all spectral conditions, drought greatly reduced the growth of both genotypes. However, the glutathione content decreased and the proline level increased, independently of the spectrum, only in the sensitive genotype. Far-red light greatly decreased the amount of cystine and glutathione disulphide during the stress which resulted in their lower ratios compared to the reduced forms only in the tolerant genotype. The maintained more reducing redox environment contributes to its better stress tolerance. In far-red light, drought induced a greater accumulation of several free amino acids (mHis, Val, Ile, Leu, Asn, His, Tyr, Lys, Arg) in the tolerant genotype, while a smaller one in the sensitive genotype compared to the other spectral conditions. The transcript level of the genes related to amino acid and glutathione metabolism was also different between the two genotypes under this condition. The present results indicate the adaptive adjustment of glutathione and amino acid levels by far-red light during drought which observation can serve as a basis for the spectrum-dependent modification of the protective metabolites (glutathione, proline) of crops to reduce the stress-induced damages.

Drought and insufficient nutrient supply are the main limiting factors for field crop production, therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the responses of four registered soybean varieties to limited nitrogen (N) supply in combination with drought stress. Plants were grown in tubes filled with silica sand, under open-air conditions. Water shortage was initiated at the three-leaf stage by providing 50% of water, and N deficiency was obtained by reducing the N content of the half-strength Hoagland solution by 50%. N deficiency did not influence the grain yield, while it significantly increased the root dry biomass in Boglár and Pannónia Kincse. Compared with nitrogen supply, the effects of the water shortage were dominant in root development. The expression levels of the investigated genes also showed genotypic variations. The expression of the Inducible nitrate reductase1 gene increased under N-deficient conditions in Boglár and decreased in Pannónia Kincse under drought conditions. The expression level of the aldehyde dehydrogenase gene and abscisic acid 8’-hydroxylase 3 increased under combined stress conditions. Summarising the agronomic and physiological characteristics, Boglár and Sinara were sensitive to drought, Bagera was sensitive to N deficiency but produced the highest yield under limited watering in each nitrogen treatment, while Pannónia Kincse was tolerant to nitrogen deficiency under well-watered conditions.

In the present study, the heat acclimation processes (growing at 30/27°C for 2 weeks) in spring and winter varieties of barley (Hordeum vulgare L., varieties 'Conchita' and 'Mv Initium') and oat (Avena sativa L., varieties 'Mv Pehely' and 'Mv Hopehely') were characterized. Temperature dependence of certain chlorophyll a fluorescence induction parameters indicated the efficiency of heat acclimation. Heat treatment induced the activity of glutathinone-S-transferase, but decreased the amounts of the major polyamines. A significant increase in cadaverine content was found in 'Conchita'. 1,3-diaminopropane contents after heat acclimation were lower in the oat and higher in the barley varieties than that in the control plants. Salicylic acid and para-hydroxybenzoic acid contents were also induced at elevated temperatures. Changes in abscisic acid differed in the two species. Results suggest that besides certain similarities, different strategies can be activated to avoid the damaging effects of high temperatures in barley and oat plants.

Aegilops biuncialis is a promising gene source to improve salt tolerance of wheat via interspecific hybridization. In the present work, the salt stress responses of wheat-Ae. biuncialis addition lines were investigated during germination and in young plants to identify which Aegilops chromosomes can improve the salt tolerance of wheat. After salt treatments, the Aegilops parent and the addition lines 2M, 3M and 3M.4BS showed higher germination potential, shoot and root growth, better CO2 assimilation capacity and less chlorophyll degradation than the wheat parent. The Aegilops parent accumulated less Na in the roots due to an up-regulation of SOS1, SOS2 and HVP1 genes, while it contained higher amount of proline, fructose, glucose, galactose, maltose and raffinose. In the leaves, lower Na level was accompanied by high amount of proline and increased expression of NHX2 gene. The enhanced accumulation of sugars and proline was also observed in the roots of 3M and 3M.4BS addition lines. Typical mechanism of 2M addition line was the sequestration of Na into the vacuole due to the increased expression of HVP1 in the roots and NHX2 in the leaves. These results suggest the Aegilops chromosomes 2M and 3M can improve salt tolerance of wheat in different way.

Cold-acclimation is essential for the development of adequate frost-hardiness in cereals and therefore sudden freezes can cause considerable damage to the canopy. However, timely adding of an appropriate signal in the absence of cold acclimation may also harden wheat for the upcoming freeze. The feasibility of the promising signal molecule methylglyoxal was tested here for such applications and the signal mechanism was studied in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum). Spraying with 10 mM methylglyoxal did not decrease the fresh weight and photosynthetic parameters in most wheat varieties at growth temperature (21 °C). Photosynthetic parameters even improved and chlorophyll content increased in some cases. Increased transcript level of glutathione-S-transferases and omega-3 fatty acid desaturases was detected by qPCR 6 h after the last methylglyoxal spray. Aldo-keto reductase and glyoxalase enzyme activities, as well as sorbitol content of wheat plants increased 24 h after the last 10 mM methylglyoxal spray in most of the cultivars. These mechanisms may explain the increased freezing survival of methylglyoxal pretreated wheat plants from less than 10% to over 30%. Our results demonstrate that exogenous methylglyoxal treatment can be safely added to wheat plants as preparatory treatment without detrimental effects but inducing some of the stress-protective mechanisms, which contribute to frost-hardiness.

Heat acclimation at non-lethal elevated temperatures may provide protection against a subsequent high temperature stress. The aim of the present work was to evaluate of the effects of heat acclimation in young wheat plants with different origins. Various photosynthetic parameters were used to characterise the physiological responses of plants to high temperature stress with or without heat acclimation at 30 °C. The elevated acclimating temperature did not induce either stomatal closure or photoinhibition. Certain genotypes were able to induce transpiration at acclimating temperature and did not reduce net assimilation. Heat tolerant genotypes could also close stomata faster when they were exposed to severe high temperatures. Heat acclimation could also be detected in various chlorophyll-a fluorescence induction parameters; however, these were less genotype-dependent, and less reflected the differences between varieties. Heat sensitivity and heat acclimation indexes provided useful tool to differentiate the heat responses of the different wheat genotypes. Further studies are needed to establish whether the heat acclimation processes and the differences between the genotypes can also be manifested in adult plants.

Extreme temperatures are among the most important stressors limiting plant growth and development. Results indicate that light substantially influences the acclimation processes to both low and high temperatures, and it may affect the level of stress injury. The interaction between light and temperature in the regulation of stress acclimation mechanisms is complex, and both light intensity and spectral composition play an important role. Higher light intensities may lead to overexcitation of the photosynthetic electron transport chain; while different wavelengths may act through different photoreceptors. These may induce various stress signalling processes, leading to regulation of stomatal movement, antioxidant and osmoregulation capacities, hormonal actions, and other stress-related pathways. In recent years, we have significantly expanded our knowledge in both light and temperature sensing and signalling. The present review provides a synthesis of results for understanding how light influences the acclimation of plants to extreme low or high temperatures, including the sensing mechanisms and molecular crosstalk processes.

The herbicide tolerance levels of 49 Martonvásár inbred parents were examined in Martonvásár in a herbicide susceptibility trial in 2016. The normal dosage recommended in the permit documentations and double dosage were used for the 12 small-plot herbicide treatments performed in two repetitions. Spraying of early post-emergent herbicides was carried out in the 1–2-leaf stage, while post-emergent treatments were applied in the 7–8-leaf stage of maize. The extent of phytotoxicity was scored for the early post-emergent herbicides two and four weeks after treatments and for the post-emergent herbicides two weeks after treatments, respectively. Some of the herbicides examined are not approved in seed production; however it is important to know the reaction of maize parent genotypes for every type of herbicides. The active agent topramezone was withdrawn from the market in 2015, but it was included in the trials as its usage was allowed until stocks run out in 2016. The herbicide agents were examined as follows: mesotrione + S-metolachlor + terbutylazine; isoxaflutol + tiencarbazon methyl + cyprosulfamide; isoxaflutol + cyprosulfamide; mesotrione + terbuthylazine; tembotrione + isoxidifen-ethyl; mesotrione + nicosulfuron; prosulfu ron; nicosulfuron +prosulfuron + dicamba; bentazone + dicamba; nicosulfuron; topramezone; foramsulfuron + isoxadifen-ethyl.Among early post-emergent herbicides, isoxaflutol + cyprosulfamide caused the less phytotoxic damage in the genotypes. The large amount of precipitation during the spring facilitated the infiltration of the active ingredient S-metolachlor, used regularly and successfully also in seed production, into the root zone, resulting in phytotoxic symptoms on susceptible inbred lines at the time of the first inspection. These genotypes recovered by the end of the vegetation period. The spring weather was cooler than usual, retarding the development of maize and thus led to the slower fermentation of herbicide active ingredients, accordingly, all of the post-emergent herbicides caused visible phytotoxic symptoms on some of genotypes. The most severe damages were generally caused by the double dosage of nicosulfuron + prosulfuron + dicamba, nicosulfuron, and foramsulfuron + isoxadifen-ethyl.

The photosynthetic responses to salt stress were examined in a wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Asakaze)–barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Manas) 7H addition line having elevated salt tolerance and compared to the parental wheat genotype. For this purpose, increasing NaCl concentrations up to 300 mM were applied and followed by a 7-day recovery period. Up to moderate salt stress (200 mM NaCl), forcible stomatal closure, parallel with a reduction in the net assimilation rate (P N), was only observed in wheat, but not in the 7H addition line or barley. Since the photosynthetic electron transport processes of wheat were not affected by NaCl, the impairment in P N could largely be accounted for the salt-induced decline in stomatal conductance (g s), accompanied by depressed intercellular CO2 concentration and carboxylation efficiency. Both, P N and nonstomatal limitation factors (Lns) were practically unaffected by moderate salt stress in barley and in the 7H addition line due to the sustained g s, which might be an efficient strategy to maintain the efficient photosynthetic activity and biomass production. At 300 mM NaCl, both P N and g s decreased significantly in all the genotypes, but the changes in P N and Lns in the 7H addition line were more favourable similar to those in wheat. The downregulation of photosynthetic electron transport processes around PSII, accompanied by increases in the quantum yield of regulated energy dissipation and of the donor side limitation of PSI without damage to PSII, was observed in the addition line and barley during severe stress. Incomplete recovery of P N was observed in the 7H addition line as a result of declined PSII activity probably caused by enhanced cyclic electron flow around PSI. These results suggest that the better photosynthetic tolerance to moderate salt stress of barley can be manifested in the 7H addition line which may be a suitable candidate for improving salt tolerance of wheat.

In the present work changes in polyamine contents were investigated after various hydroponic polyamine treatments (putrescine, spermidine and spermine at 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 mM concentrations) in two different crop species, wheat and maize. In contrast to putrescine, higher polyamines (spermidine and spermine) induced concentration-dependent oxidative damage in both crops, resulting in decreased biomass. The unfavourable effects of polyamines were more pronounced in the roots, and maize was more sensitive than wheat. The adverse effects of polyamine treatment were proportional to the accumulation of polyamine and the plant hormone salicylic acid in the leaves and roots of both plant species. Changes in polyamine content and catabolism during osmotic stress conditions were also studied after beneficial pre-treatment with putrescine. The greater positive effect of putrescine in wheat than in maize can be explained by differences in the polyamine metabolism under normal and osmotic stress conditions, and by relationship between polyamines and salicylic acid. The results demonstrated that changes in the polyamine pool are important for fine tuning of polyamine signalling, which influences the hormonal balance required if putrescine is to exert a protective effect under stress conditions.

Many environmental stresses cause osmotic stress which induces several metabolic changes in plants. These changes often vary depending on the genotype, type and intensity of stress or the environmental conditions. In the current experiments, metabolic responses of wheat to osmotic stress induced by different kinds of osmolytes were studied under iso-osmotic stress conditions. A single wheat genotypes was treated with PEG-6000, mannitol, sorbitol or NaCl at such concentrations which reduce the osmotic potential of the culture media to the same level (-0.8MPa). The metabolic changes, including the accumulation of proline, glycine betaine (GB) and sugar metabolites (glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and sucrose) were studied both in the leaves and roots together with monitoring the plant growth, changes in the photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll content of the leaves. In addition, the polyamine metabolism was also investigated. Although all osmolytes inhibited growth similarly, they induced different physiological and metabolic responses: the CO2 assimilation capacity, RWC content and the osmotic potential (ψπ) of the leaves decreased intensively, especially after mannitol and sorbitol treatments, followed by NaCl treatment, while PEG caused only a slight modification in these parameters. In the roots, the most pronounced decrease of ψπ was found after salt-treatments, followed by PEG treatment. Osmotic stress induced the accumulation of proline, glycine betaine and soluble sugars, such as fructose, glucose, sucrose and galactose in both the root and leaf sap. Specific metabolic response of roots and leaves under PEG included accumulation of glucose, fructose and GB (in the roots); sucrose, galactose and proline synthesis were dominant under NaCl stress while exposure to mannitol and sorbitol triggered polyamine metabolism and overproduction of maltose. The amount of those metabolites was time-dependent in the manner that longer exposure to iso-osmotic stress conditions stimulated the sugar metabolic routes. Our results showed that the various osmolytes activated different metabolic processes even under iso-osmotic stress conditions and these changes also differed in the leaves and roots.

Moderate heat stress may provide protection against a subsequent severe high temperature stress in plants. However, the exact mechanisms of heat acclimation of wheat are still poorly understood. In the present work, two wheat varieties Ellvis and Soissons were exposed to a moderate elevated temperature at 30 °C, and the changes of certain protective mechanisms were investigated. Although the differences in the proline level between the genotypes were not substantial, it was approx. 2–3 times higher in the heat-treated plants than in the controls. After exposure to moderate elevated temperature, the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase were also induced. Similarly, the amount of the free salicylic acid also increased after moderate heat stress, independently on the genotypes. The amount of the main polyamines, namely, putrescine, spermidine, and spermine either did not change or decreased after the same period. However, heat acclimation increased the level of 1,3-diaminopropane, in parallel with a polyamine oxidase gene, TaPAO. While the expression level of the peroxisomal polyamine oxidase gene TaperPAO hardly changed, TaPAO showed a substantial increase after 1 day, especially in Soissons, and at the end of the heat treatment was still significantly higher than in the controls. These suggest that signalling processes related to polyamine metabolisms or salicylic acid-related processes might also contribute to the higher heat tolerance induced by moderate heat stress. The variations in recorded measurements were mainly temperature dependent, and the effect of genotype was less pronounced than the effect of moderate heat treatment itself.

The effects of various light intensities and spectral compositions on glutathione and amino acid metabolism were compared in wheat. Increase of light intensity (low—normal—high) was accompanied by a simultaneous increase in the shoot fresh weight, photosynthetic activity and glutathione content. These parameters were also affected by the modification of the ratios of blue, red and far-red components (referred to as blue, pink and far-red lights) compared to normal white light. The photosynthetic activity and the glutathione content decreased to 50% and the percentage of glutathione disulfide (characterising the redox state of the tissues) in the total glutathione pool doubled in far-red light. The alterations in the level and redox state of the antioxidant glutathione resulted from the effect of light on its synthesis as it could be concluded from the changes in the transcription of the related genes. Modification of the light conditions also greatly affected both the amount and the ratio of free amino acids. The total free amino acid content was greatly induced by the increase of light intensity and was greatly reduced in pink light compared to the normal intensity white light. The concentrations of most amino acids were similarly affected by the light conditions as described for the total free amino acid content but Pro, Met, Thr, ornithine and cystathionine showed unique response to light. As observed for the amino acid levels, the expression of several genes involved in their metabolism also enhanced due to increased light intensity. Interestingly, the modification of the spectrum greatly inhibited the expression of most of these genes. Correlation analysis of the investigated parameters indicates that changes in the light conditions may affect growth through the adjustment of photosynthesis and the glutathione-dependent redox state of the tissues. This process modifies the metabolism of glutathione and amino acids at transcriptional level.

Wild relatives of wheat, such as Aegilops spp. are potential sources of genes conferring tolerance to drought stress. As drought stress affects seed composition, the main goal of the present study was to determine the effects of drought stress on the content and composition of the grain storage protein (gliadin (Gli), glutenin (Glu), unextractable polymeric proteins (UPP%) and dietary fiber (arabinoxylan, β-glucan) components of hexaploid bread wheat (T. aestivum) lines containing added chromosomes from Ae. biuncialis or Ae. geniculata. Both Aegilops parents have higher contents of protein and β-glucan and higher proportions of water-soluble arabinoxylans (determined as pentosans) than wheat when grown under both well-watered and drought stress conditions. In general, drought stress resulted in increased contents of protein and total pentosans in the addition lines, while the β-glucan content decreased in many of the addition lines. The differences found between the wheat/Aegilops addition lines and wheat parents under well-watered conditions were also manifested under drought stress conditions: Namely, elevated β-glucan content was found in addition lines containing chromosomes 5Ug, 7Ug and 7Mb, while chromosomes 1Ub and 1Mg affected the proportion of polymeric proteins (determined as Glu/Gli and UPP%, respectively) under both well-watered and drought stress conditions. Furthermore, the addition of chromosome 6Mg decreased the WE-pentosan content under both conditions. The grain composition of the Aegilops accessions was more stable under drought stress than that of wheat, and wheat lines with the added Aegilops chromosomes 2Mg and 5Mg also had more stable grain protein and pentosan contents. The negative effects of drought stress on both the physical and compositional properties of wheat were also reduced by the addition of these. These results suggest that the stability of the grain composition could be improved under drought stress conditions by the intraspecific hybridization of wheat with its wild relatives.

Wheat is one of the most important cereals, whose growth and development is strongly limited by drought. This study investigated the physiological and metabolic response of six winter wheat cultivars to drought with the emphasis on the induction of dominant metabolites affected by the treatment and genotypes or both. The plants were exposed to a moderate (non-lethal) drought stress, which was induced by withholding watering for six days under controlled greenhouse conditions. A decline in CO2 assimilation (Pn) and transpiration rate, stomata closure, a decrease in relative water content (RWC) and increase of malondialdehyde content were observed in drought-treated plants of all cultivars. These changes were most pronounced in Ellvis, while Soissons was able to retain the higher RWC and Pn. Among the studied metabolites, sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose, several disaccharides), organic acids (malic acid, oxalic acids), amino acids (proline, threonine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamine) and sugar alcohols such as myo-inositol accumulated to higher levels in the plants exposed to drought stress in comparison with the control. The accumulation of several metabolites in response to drought differed between the genotypes. Drought induced the production of sucrose, malic acid and oxalic acid, unknown organic acid 1, unknown disaccharide 1, 2 and 3, GABA, L-threonine, glutamic acid in four (Soissons, Žitarka, Antonija or Toborzo) out of six genotypes. In addition, Soissons, which was the most drought tolerant genotype, accumulated the highest amount of unknown disaccharide 5, galactonic and phosphoric acids. The two most drought sensitive cultivars, Srpanjka and Ellvis, demonstrated different metabolic adjustment in response to the stress treatment. Srpanjka responded to drought by increasing the amount of glucose and fructose originated from hydrolyses of sucrose and accumulating unidentified sugar alcohols 1 and 2. In Ellvis, drought caused inhibition of photosynthetic carbon metabolism, as evidence by the decreased Pn, gs, RWC and accumulation levels of sugar metabolites (sucrose, glucose and fructose). The results revealed the differences in metabolic response to drought among the genotypes, which drew attention on metabolites related with general response and on those metabolites which are part of specific response that may play an important role in drought tolerance.

Young wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Mv Béres) were exposed to 0 or 25 mM NaCl for 11 days (salt acclimation). Thereafter the plants were irrigated with 500 mM NaCl for 5 days (salt stress). Irrigating the plants with a low concentration of NaCl successfully led to a reduction in chlorotic symptoms and in the impairment of the photosynthetic processes when the plants were exposed to subsequent high-dose salt treatment. After exposure to a high concentration of NaCl there was no difference in leaf Na content between the salt-acclimated and non-acclimated plants, indicating that salt acclimation did not significantly modify Na transport to the shoots. While the polyamine level was lower in salt-treated plants than in the control, salt acclimation led to increased osmotic potential in the leaves. Similarly, the activities of certain antioxidant enzymes, namely glutathione reductase, catalase and ascorbate peroxidase, were significantly higher in salt-acclimated plants. The results also suggest that while SOS1, SOS2 or NHX2 do not play a decisive role in the salt acclimation processes in young wheat plants; another stress-related gene, WALI6, may contribute to the success of the salt acclimation processes. The present study suggested that the responses of wheat plants to acclimation with low level of salt and to treatment with high doses of salt may be fundamentally different.

Interspecific hybridization between bread wheat (Triticum aestivum, 2n = 42) and related species allows the transfer of agronomic and quality traits, whereby subsequent generations comprise an improved genetic background and can be directly applied in wheat breeding programmes. While wild relatives are frequently used as sources of agronomically favourable traits, cultivated species can also improve wheat quality and stress resistance. A salt-tolerant ‘Asakaze’/‘Manas’ 7H disomic addition line (2n = 44) with elevated β-glucan content, but with low fertility and an unstable genetic background was developed in an earlier wheat-barley prebreeding programme. The aim of the present study was to take this hybridization programme further and transfer the favourable barley traits into a more stable genetic background. Taking advantage of the breakage-fusion mechanism of univalent chromosomes, the ‘Rannaya’ winter wheat 7B monosomic line was used as female partner to the 7H addition line male, leading to the development of a compensating wheat/barley Robertsonian translocation line (7BS.7HL centric fusion, 2n = 42) exhibiting higher salt tolerance and elevated grain β-glucan content. Throughout the crossing programme, comprising the F1-F4 generations, genomic in situ hybridization, fluorescence in situ hybridization and chromosome-specific molecular markers were used to trace and identify the wheat and barley chromatin. Investigations on salt tolerance during germination and on the (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucan (mixed-linkage glucan [MLG]) content of the seeds confirmed the salt tolerance and elevated grain MLG content of the translocation line, which can be directly applied in current wheat breeding programmes.

The use of light-emitting diode (LED) technology for plant cultivation under controlled environmental conditions can result in significant reductions in energy consumption. However, there is still a lack of detailed information on the lighting conditions required for optimal growth of different plant species and the effects of light intensity and spectral composition on plant metabolism and nutritional quality. In the present study, wheat plants were grown under six regimens designed to compare the effects of LED and conventional fluorescent lights on growth and development, leaf photosynthesis, thiol and amino acid metabolism as well as grain yield and flour quality of wheat. Benefits of LED light sources over fluorescent lighting were manifested in both yield and quality of wheat. Elevated light intensities made possible with LEDs increased photosynthetic activity, the number of tillers, biomass and yield. At lower light intensities, blue, green and far-red light operated antagonistically during the stem elongation period. High photosynthetic activity was achieved when at least 50% of red light was applied during cultivation. A high proportion of blue light prolonged the juvenile phase, while the shortest flowering time was achieved when the blue to red ratio was around one. Blue and far-red light affected the glutathione- and proline-dependent redox environment in leaves. LEDs, especially in Blue, Pink and Red Low Light (RedLL) regimens improved flour quality by modifying starch and protein content, dough strength and extensibility as demonstrated by the ratios of high to low molecular weight glutenins, ratios of glutenins to gliadins and gluten spread values. These results clearly show that LEDs are efficient for experimental wheat cultivation, and make it possible to optimize the growth conditions and to manipulate metabolism, yield and quality through modification of light quality and quantity.

High salinity is one of the major environmental factors limiting the productivity of crop species worldwide. Improving the stress tolerance of cultivated plants and thus increasing crop yields in an environmentally friendly way is a crucial task in agriculture. In the present work the ability of a new derivative, S-methylmethionine-salicylate (MMS), to improve the salt tolerance of wheat plants was tested parallel with its related compounds salicylic acid and S-methylmethionine. The results show that while these compounds are harmful at relatively high concentration (0.5 mM), they may provide protection against high salinity at lower (0.1 mM) concentration. This was confirmed by gas exchange, chlorophyll content and chlorophyll-a fluorescence induction measurements. While osmotic adjustment probably plays a critical role in the improved salt tolerance, neither Na or K transport from the roots to the shoots nor proline synthesis are the main factors in the tolerance induced by the compounds tested. MMS, S-methylmethionine and Na-salicylate had different effects on flavonol biosynthesis. It was also shown that salt treatment had a substantial influence on the SA metabolism in wheat roots and leaves. Present results suggest that the investigated compounds can be used to improve salt tolerance in plants.

The phytotoxic effect of herbicides applied post-emergence was investigated in a herbicide sensitivity experiment set up on parental maize genotypes in Martonvásár. A total of 48 Martonvásár inbred lines and 12 single line crosses were included in small-plot experiments set up in two replications. Ten herbicides were applied at the normal authorised rate and at twice this quantity. Compounds intended for pre-emergence application were applied when maize was in the 3–4-leaf stage and post-emergence herbicides in the 7–8-leaf stage of development. The extent of phytotoxicity was scored two weeks after treatment. Some of the herbicides tested are not authorised for use in seed production fields, but it is important to know how the parental genotypes respond to all types of herbicides. Phytotoxic symptoms of varying intensity were only observed on a third of the 60 parental genotypes examined; the majority of the lines exhibited no reaction to any of the herbicides. Averaged over the 60 genotypes the level of phytotoxic damage was less than 10% for the single dose. When the double dose was applied somewhat more severe damage was induced by products containing Mesotrione + Nicosulfuron or Foramsulfuron + Isoxadifen-ethyl, but this was still below 15%. The herbicide dose had a three times stronger influence on the intensity of the symptoms than the type of herbicide. With the exception of Topramezone, there was a significant difference between the effects of the normal and double doses. The greatest dose effect differences, in decreasing order, were observed for Mesotrione + Nicosulfuron, Foramsulfuron + Isoxadifen-ethyl. Nicosulfuron and Mesotrione + Terbutylazine. The Mesotrione + Terbutylazine active ingredient combination only caused mild (

Salinity-induced osmotic, ionic and oxidative stress responses were investigated on Asakaze/Manas wheat/barley addition lines 7H, 7HL and 7HS, together with their barley (salt-tolerant) and wheat (relatively salt-sensitive) parents. Growth, photosynthetic activity, chlorophyll degradation, proline, glycine betaine accumulation, sugar metabolism, Na+ and K+ uptake and transport processes and the role of polyamines and antioxidants were studied in young plants grown in hydroponic culture with or without salt treatment. Changes in plant growth and photosynthetic activity of plants demonstrated that the salt tolerance of the addition lines 7H and 7HL was similar to that of barley parent cv. Manas, while the sensitivity of the addition line 7HS was similar to that of the wheat parent cv. Asakaze. The Na accumulation in the roots and shoots did not differ between the addition lines and wheat parent. The activation of various genes related to Na uptake and transport was not correlated with the salt tolerance of the genotypes. These results indicated that the direct regulation of Na transport processes is not the main reason for the salt tolerance of these genotypes. Salt treatment induced a complex metabolic rearrangement in both the roots and shoots of all the genotypes. Elevated proline accumulation in the roots and enhanced sugar metabolism in the shoots were found to be important for salt tolerance in the 7H and 7HL addition lines and in barley cv. Manas. In wheat cv. Asakaze and the 7HS addition line the polyamine metabolism was activated. It seems that osmotic adjustment is a more important process in the improvement of salt tolerance in 7H addition lines than the direct regulation of Na transport processes or antioxidant defence.

Cereal grain fiber is an important health-promoting component in the human diet. One option to improve dietary fiber content and composition in wheat is to introduce genes from its wild relatives Aegilops biuncialis and Aegilops geniculata. This study showed that the addition of chromosomes 2Ug, 4Ug, 5Ug, 7Ug, 2Mg, 5Mg, and 7Mg of Ae. geniculata and 3Ub, 2Mb, 3Mb, and 7Mb of Ae. biuncialis into bread wheat increased the seed protein content. Chromosomes 1Ug and 1Mg increased the proportion of polymeric glutenin proteins, while the addition of chromosomes 1Ub and 6Ub led to its decrease. Both Aegilops species had higher proportions of β-glucan compared to arabinoxylan (AX) than wheat lines, and elevated β-glucan content was also observed in wheat chromosome addition lines 5U, 7U, and 7M. The AX content in wheat was increased by the addition of chromosomes 5Ug, 7Ug, and 1Ub while water-soluble AX was increased by the addition of chromosomes 5U, 5M, and 7M, and to a lesser extent by chromosomes 3, 4, 6Ug, and 2Mb. Chromosomes 5Ug and 7Mb also affected the structure of wheat AX, as shown by the pattern of oligosaccharides released by digestion with endoxylanase. These results will help to map genomic regions responsible for edible fiber content in Aegilops and will contribute to the efficient transfer of wild alleles in introgression breeding programs to obtain wheat varieties with improved health benefits. Key Message: Addition of Aegilops U- and M-genome chromosomes 5 and 7 improves seed protein and fiber content and composition in wheat.

Due to the urgent and pressing need in the twenty-first century to develop sustainable ways to safeguard crop yields in a way requiring low costs and fewer chemicals, the demand has been increasing in recent years for natural, biologically active materials which can be used to improve the nutritional and agronomic traits of agriculturally important food and feed crops. A wide range of experiments has been performed to find solutions which are applicable in environment-safe farming. One promising compound is salicylic acid, which has been proved to play a role in abiotic and biotic stress response mechanisms. The present chapter gives a short overview of selected results, focusing mainly on the practical aspects of its use and possible challenges for future research.

Cereal grain fiber is an important health-promoting component in the human diet. One option to improve dietary fiber content and composition in wheat is to introduce genes from its wild relatives Aegilops biuncialis and Aegilops geniculata. This study showed that the addition of chromosomes 2Ug, 4Ug, 5Ug, 7Ug, 2Mg, 5Mg, and 7Mg of Ae. geniculata and 3Ub, 2Mb, 3Mb, and 7Mb of Ae. biuncialis into bread wheat increased the seed protein content. Chromosomes 1Ug and 1Mg increased the proportion of polymeric glutenin proteins, while the addition of chromosomes 1Ub and 6Ub led to its decrease. Both Aegilops species had higher proportions of β-glucan compared to arabinoxylan (AX) than wheat lines, and elevated β-glucan content was also observed in wheat chromosome addition lines 5U, 7U, and 7M. The AX content in wheat was increased by the addition of chromosomes 5Ug, 7Ug, and 1Ub while water-soluble AX was increased by the addition of chromosomes 5U, 5M, and 7M, and to a lesser extent by chromosomes 3, 4, 6Ug, and 2Mb. Chromosomes 5Ug and 7Mb also affected the structure of wheat AX, as shown by the pattern of oligosaccharides released by digestion with endoxylanase. These results will help to map genomic regions responsible for edible fiber content in Aegilops and will contribute to the efficient transfer of wild alleles in introgression breeding programs to obtain wheat varieties with improved health benefits. Key Message: Addition of Aegilops U- and M-genome chromosomes 5 and 7 improves seed protein and fiber content and composition in wheat.

The phytotoxic effects of herbicides applied pre-, early post- and post-emergence were studied in maize in a herbicide sensitivity experiment were set up in Martonvásár and Törökszentmiklós. The herbicides were applied in normal and in double doses to 37 Martonvásár inbred lines and to six parental single crosses. The small-plot experiments were set up in two replications. The wet weather that followed the pre- and early post-emergence treatments promoted the appearance of phytotoxic symptoms on maize. The degree of phytotoxicity was recorded on the 14th day after post-emergence treatment and on the 14th and 28th days after the pre- and early postemergence treatments. Herbicides applied pre-emergence only caused slight symptoms on maize. Although the double dose increased the damage, it was still not more than 5% on average. The symptoms caused by herbicides applied in the early post-emergence stage were more intensive than those detected in the pre-emergence treatments. However, the damage caused by the double dose of isoxaflutol + thiencarbazone-methyl and by the split treatment with nicosulfuron remained below 10%. The symptoms became somewhat more severe at the 2nd scoring date. Among the post-emergence treatments the maize genotypes had the least tolerance of the mesotrione + nicosulfuron combination of active ingredients, where the double quantities resulted in 13–14% damage in average.

Goat grasses (Aegilops spp.) contributed to the evolution of bread wheat and are important sources of genes and alleles for modern wheat improvement. However, their use in alien introgression breeding is hindered by poor knowledge of their genome structure and a lack of molecular tools. The analysis of large and complex genomes may be simplified by dissecting them into single chromosomes via flow cytometric sorting. In some species this is not possible due to similarities in relative DNA content among chromosomes within a karyotype. This work describes the distribution of GAA and ACG microsatellite repeats on chromosomes of the U, M, S and C genomes of Aegilops, and the use of microsatellite probes to label the chromosomes in suspension by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISHIS). Bivariate flow cytometric analysis of chromosome DAPI fluorescence and fluorescence of FITC-labelled microsatellites made it possible to discriminate all chromosomes and sort them with negligible contamination by other chromosomes. DNA of purified chromosomes was used as a template for polymerase chain reation (PCR) using Conserved Orthologous Set (COS) markers with known positions on wheat A, B and D genomes. Wheat-Aegilops macrosyntenic comparisons using COS markers revealed significant rearrangements in the U and C genomes, while the M and S genomes exhibited structure similar to wheat. Purified chromosome fractions provided an attractive resource to investigate the structure and evolution of the Aegilops genomes, and the COS markers assigned to Aegilops chromosomes will facilitate alien gene introgression into wheat.

The rate of carbon and nitrogen assimilation is highly sensitive to stress factors, such as low temperature and drought. Little is known about the role of light in the simultaneous effect of cold and drought. The present study thus focused on the combined effect of mild water deficiency and different light intensities during the early cold hardening in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum L.) cultivars with different levels of cold sensitivity. The results showed that reduced illumination decreased the undesirable effects of photoinhibition in the case of net photosynthesis and nitrate reduction, which may help to sustain these processes at low temperature. Mild water deficiency also had a slight positive effect on the effective quantum efficiency of PSII and the nitrate reductase activity in the cold. Glutamine synthesis was affected by light rather than by water deprivation during cold stress. The invertase activity increased to a greater extent by water deprivation, but an increase in illumination also had a facilitating effect on this enzyme. This suggests that both moderate water deficiency and light have an influence on nitrogen metabolism and sucrose degradation during cold hardening. A possible rise in the soluble sugar content caused by the invertase may compensate for the decline in photosynthetic carbon assimilation indicated by the decrease in net photosynthesis. The changes in the osmotic potential can be also correlated to the enhanced level of invertase activity. Both of them were regulated by light at normal water supply, but not at water deprivation in the cold. However, changes in the metabolic enzyme activities and osmotic adjustment could not be directly contributed to the different levels of cold tolerance of the cultivars in the early acclimation period.