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Digital technology in primary education can both be distracting and increase attentiveness. Many students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) have difficulties with skills that address attention, and teachers are expected to provide support. Such skills are referred to as Executive Function (EF) in neuroscience, relating to self-regulation, attention shifting, and inhibition of behavior. This systematic literature review outlines research on primary education during 2000-2022 that relates students' EF and digital technology through empirical data and suggested SEN-inclusive educational interventions. 288 full-text journal articles were assessed, and 26 were included for analysis. Findings include common game-based solutions for EF and SEN support, enabling explicit goals, short teaching activities, and recorded outcomes. Other examples include EF skills training and classroom management with digital monitoring devices. A substantially increased research interest during 2021-2022 was observed. Aspects needing further research are discussed, such as more special education views with cost-effective behavioral approaches.

Executive function (EF) is critical to students' academic behaviors and well-being. Environmental influences, particularly teacher-student interaction (TSI), play a key role in enhancing EF development. Previous studies have linked TSI quality to children's EF, yet the relationships between subdimensions of TSI--such as closeness, conflict, dependency, emotional support, classroom management, and instructional support--and EF outcomes remain unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether these relations hold true across different cultural contexts. From an initial pool of 14,915 articles, in this meta-analysis, we considered 84 empirical studies across 18 cultural regions, revealing that TSI subdimensions are consistently related to EF with small-to-medium effect sizes. The analysis also identified statistically significant moderating factors, such as individualism, power distance, EF type, EF instrument, and socioeconomic status. Notably, stronger TSI-EF correlations were found among children from cultures with low-individualism and high-power-distance, as well as among children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. These patterns were particularly pronounced in studies measuring hot EF through adult-reported data. This comprehensive meta-analysis bridges knowledge gaps in TSI-EF dynamics, and supporting theories, such as attachment theory, social learning theory, and socio-cultural theory within educational settings. Crucially, it provides cross-cultural perspectives showing how cultural and contextual factors may intertwine with TSI-EF interactions.

Background: Executive function, which develops rapidly in childhood, enables problem-solving, focused attention, and planning. Animal models describe executive function decrements associated with ambient air pollution exposure, but epidemiologic studies are limited., Methods: We examined associations between early childhood air pollution exposure and school-aged executive function in 1235 children from three US pregnancy cohorts in the ECHO-PATHWAYS Consortium. We derived point-based residential exposures to ambient particulate matter ≤2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM 2.5 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and ozone (O 3 ) at ages 0-4 years from spatiotemporal models with a 2-week resolution. We assessed executive function across three domains, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control, using performance-based measures and calculated a composite score quantifying overall performance. We fitted linear regressions to assess air pollution and child executive function associations, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, maternal mental health, and health behaviors, and examined modification by child sex, maternal education, and neighborhood educational opportunity., Results: In the overall sample, we found hypothesized inverse associations in crude but not adjusted models. Modified associations between NO 2 exposure and working memory by neighborhood education opportunity were present ( Pinteraction = 0.05), with inverse associations more pronounced in the "high" and "very high" categories. Associations of interest did not differ by child sex or maternal education., Conclusion: This work contributes to the evolving science regarding early-life environmental exposures and child development. There remains a need for continued exploration in future research endeavors, to elucidate the complex interplay between natural environment and social determinants influencing child neurodevelopment., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of the current study is to examine the association between hydration status and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults, drawing from a large, nationally representative sample in the United States and using a comprehensive set of executive function performance measures. We utilized data from the Health and Retirement Study to conduct twelve, three-stage hierarchical regressions on hydration status and executive function performance of older adults. Cognitive performance scores on the Trail Making A, Symbol Digit Modalities, and Letter Cancellation tests significantly differed by hydration status, and these outcomes follow a curvilinear pattern, such that performance scores are lower for those who are hyper-hydrated or dehydrated relative to those who are euhydrated or near-dehydration. Our study's findings are consistent with prior studies examining the impact of serum osmolarity on cognitive performance. Specifically, a curvilinear pattern was associated with speed of processing tests of executive function. Overall, hydration status is associated with curvilinear patterns of performance on executive function measures, specifically Trail Making A, Symbol Digit Modalities, and Letter Cancellation Tests.

Executive functioning (EF) has been shown to relate to academic achievement and well-being. Independent bodies of work have aimed to understand what environmental or personal attributes influence EF ability. However, most research has not considered how constellations of risk factors create distinct patterns of influence on EF ability. The current study tested a sample of children aged 9 to 10 years from the United States ( N = 10,323, 48.06% female, M ag e = 9.9 years, age range = 8.9-11.08 years) using a latent profile analysis (LPA) to detect subgroups that varied in their combinations of various risk factors. Six distinct groups of risk factors for children emerged, which in turn related to different average EF abilities. We found that family socioeconomic measures related to a subgroup having above- or below-average EF ability, but we also found an effect on EF across different risk factors. These results inform our understanding of individual variations in EF ability and highlight the idea that EF interventions should consider risk holistically.

There are multivariate influences on the development of children's executive function throughout the lifespan and substantial individual differences can be seen as early as when children are 1 and 2 years of age. These individual differences are moderately stable throughout early childhood, but more research is needed to better understand their origins. To some degree, individual differences in executive function are correlated between mother and child, but no research to date has examined these associations prior to when children are preschool age, nor have any studies considered the role of fathers' and mothers' executive function in tandem. Here, we use a sample of 484 families (Mothers 89.2% white; Fathers 92.5% white) in three countries (UK, USA, Netherlands) to investigate the role of each parents' executive function on the development of children's (49.7% female) executive function from 14 (M = 14.42, SD = 0.57) to 24 (M = 24.47, SD = 0.78) months, as well as parenting practices that underlie these associations. Results of structural equation models suggest stability in some--but not all--components of executive function and growing unity between components as children age. We replicate extant findings such that mothers' executive function predicts children's executive function over and above stability and extend these findings to include associations between father and child skills. We find an additive role of fathers' EF, similar in magnitude to the role of mothers' EF. Finally, for both mothers and fathers we find that sensitivity and autonomy supportive practices mediate the relations between parents' and children's executive function.

Background: Normative data for Spanish-speaking populations, particularly Hispanics in the U.S., is notably scarce., Objective: This study aims to establish normative data for executive function tests (Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Stroop Color and Word Test) among Spanish-speaking Hispanics in the U.S., Methods: We assessed 245 individuals aged 18-80 from eight U.S. states (California, Connecticut, Florida, Indiana, New Jersey, Oregon, Virginia, and Wisconsin) and employed Bayesian regression to estimate norms, considering various sociodemographic factors influencing performance., Results: The posterior distribution suggests a high probability that age impacts SCWT performance, with older adults likely to show greater declines, particularly among those with high proficiency in Spanish. The posterior distribution suggests a stronger effect of age on M-WCST performance among individuals with longer U.S. residency. Educational attainment demonstrates a robust positive impact on M-WCST outcomes, with lower levels of education associated with a higher probability of increased errors. An interaction between education and Spanish proficiency was observed, influencing SCWT scores differently across proficiency levels. Sex and acculturation levels interact to affect SCWT performance, with distinct patterns observed between men and women. This suggests that the impact of acculturation on cognitive test performance may vary by gender., Conclusion: Establishing culturally sensitive normative data can enhance accurate identification of executive dysfunction and reduce misdiagnosis risks. This study underscores the importance of considering sociocultural factors including acculturation and language proficiency in neuropsychological assessments to better serve diverse populations.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent ratings of motor skills and executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the United States and Taiwan., Materials and Method: One hundred and seventy-two parents/legal guardians of children (4-6 years and 11 months old) with ASD were recruited from two countries, Taiwan ( n = 100) and the United States ( n = 72). The parents or guardians of the child with ASD completed a questionnaire including demographic information, child's motor skills (using Children Activity Scale - Parents, ChAS-P), and child's EF (using Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory, CHEXI). A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether ChAS-P (total motor score, fine motor skills, and gross motor skill) was associated with CHEXI (total EF score, working memory, and inhibition), after controlling for covariates (i.e., age, gender, race, body mass index, whether children received physical activity or cognitive training, parental education level)., Results: Total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills were significantly associated with EF in both working memory and inhibition as rated by parents in both countries ( β = 0.21-0.57, p < 0.01), with the exception of a non-significant association between parent-rated total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills, and inhibition among Taiwanese children with ASD. In addition, the associations between parent ratings of motor skills (i.e., fine motor and gross motor skills) and EF (i.e., working memory and inhibition) were similar between the two countries., Conclusion: Positive associations with specific aspects of parent ratings of fine motor and gross motor skills and working memory and inhibition were found in children with ASD from both countries. These findings have implications for future interventions and programs focused on improving early motor skills and EF development for young children with ASD from Taiwan and the United States., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Sung, McClelland, Massey, Logan and MacDonald.)

Executive function (EF) has rarely been considered for adolescents' daily school outcomes or in conjunction with ethnic/racial discrimination. Using 2-week, daily data from 137 ethnic/racial minority adolescents ( M = 14.56; 53% female; 56% Black, 19% Latinx, 7% Asian, 7% Native, 12% other [e.g., multiracial]) in the Midwest United States, this study examined same-day, within-person associations between EF and school engagement (controlling for prior-day engagement), and how these associations varied by adolescents' daily experiences of ethnic/racial discrimination. Two EF components, inhibitory control and working memory, were associated with higher levels of school engagement on the same day, only on days when adolescents reported lower than their typical levels of discrimination. An alternative, indirect effect (i.e., discrimination compromised same-day school engagement via EF) was not observed. Findings highlight novel mechanisms through which discrimination may contribute to educational disparities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).age = 14.56; 53% female; 56% Black, 19% Latinx, 7% Asian, 7% Native, 12% other [e.g., multiracial]) in the Midwest United States, this study examined same-day, within-person associations between EF and school engagement (controlling for prior-day engagement), and how these associations varied by adolescents' daily experiences of ethnic/racial discrimination. Two EF components, inhibitory control and working memory, were associated with higher levels of school engagement on the same day, only on days when adolescents reported lower than their typical levels of discrimination. An alternative, indirect effect (i.e., discrimination compromised same-day school engagement via EF) was not observed. Findings highlight novel mechanisms through which discrimination may contribute to educational disparities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

This study aimed to examine the reciprocal relation between body mass index and internalizing behavior from age 2 to 15, and also the predictive role of executive function. This study included a subset sample of 640 children (47% were male) from the National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. A refined random-intercept cross-lagged model was employed to analyze: (1) the reciprocal relation between children's body mass index and internalizing behavior assessed in eight waves from age 2 to 15; (2) the predictive role of executive functioning in both children's body mass index and internalizing behavior. Trait-level body mass index-to-internalizing behavior association was not found; a significant state-level prediction from body mass index in 5th grade to internalizing behavior in 6th grade was found. Executive function was significantly associated with trait-level body mass index, trait-level internalizing behaviors, and state-level internalizing behaviors. The findings suggest that deficits in children's executive functioning may be a shared risk associated with both high body mass index and internalizing behaviors. From an intervention perspective, this study highlighted the importance of targeting executive function to intervene in children's obesity or internalizing behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study involved a psychometric evaluation of the Short Executive Function Scale (SEFS), a new 15-item self-report questionnaire measuring five constructs: Planning, Inhibition, Working Memory, Shifting, and Emotional Control. Participants included 717 U.S. undergraduate students (M = 18.9 years old, SD = 1.9; 78.8% cisgender female, 81.7% White) who completed the SEFS. A subset of 156 participants (M = 18.8 years old, SD = 0.9; 79.5% cisgender female, 83.3% White) completed the SEFS again at 2- to 3-month retest along with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult (BRIEF-A) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8). The five-factor model fit well (CFI = 0.941, RMSEA = 0.079) and each scale had acceptable internal consistency (ω range:.68–.81) and test–retest reliability (ICC range:.75–.89). Apart from Shifting, all SEFS scales had significantly larger convergent validity coefficients with their respective BRIEF-A scales (r range: −.25 to −.70) than discriminant validity coefficients with the PHQ-8 (r range: −.06 to −.28). These findings provide preliminary psychometric support for the SEFS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adaptive behaviour refers to the practical skills necessary for independence and is considered a high‐priority intervention target for children with neurogenetic conditions associated with intellectual disability, like Down syndrome (DS). Daily living skills (DLS) are a critical aspect of adaptive behaviour, but they have received little intervention attention, possibly because they involve a wide variety of skills across many settings. The present study aimed to advance DLS intervention science by examining the concurrent and longitudinal association between DLS performances and a cognitive skillset hypothesised to support DLS skill acquisition, executive function (EF). Methods: Participants were 71 children with DS between the ages of 2.5 and 8.7 years (M = 5.23 years; standard deviation = 1.65) who completed a battery of adapted EF tasks and a primary caregiver who completed the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales 3rd Edition Parent/Caregiver Comprehensive Report Form. A subset of caregivers also provided 6‐ and 12‐month follow‐up adaptive behaviour information. Results: Results demonstrated a positive association between EF task performance and DLS standard scores and v‐scores both concurrently and longitudinally. Conclusions: The findings have implications for potential future intervention approaches that aim to strengthen DLS performances by advancing EF skills in this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In this study, executive function of school-aged children with visual impairments (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) is examined in the context of behavioral problems and communicative competence. Methods: Teachers assessed the executive function of a sample of 226 visually impaired students from mainstream schools and schools for students who are visually impaired, using a German version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF-D) and a questionnaire measuring communicative competence and behavioral problems (German version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; SDQ-D). Results: The results showed highly significant differences in all domains of executive function: the visually impaired students consistently scored more poorly compared to a normative sample of sighted children, even when visually impaired students with additional disabilities were not taken into account. A regression analysis revealed the significance of executive function for behavioral problems among students with visual impairments. Discussion: The findings demonstrate that a wide range of executive function domains that are significant for socioemotional development are not sufficiently developed in many visually impaired students. This lack of development seems to be particularly true for students who attend special schools. Implications for Practitioners: In educational concepts for visually impaired students, a specific and early focus on competencies such as attention shifting and emotional understanding seems to be necessary, especially in the context of inclusion. Moreover, reinforcing communicative competence might also enhance the development of executive function and help to reduce behavioral problems.

The COVID-19 pandemic may have exacerbated depression, anxiety, and executive function (EF) difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF skills have been positively associated with mental health outcomes. Here, we probed the psychosocial impacts of pandemic responses in children with and without ASD by relating pre-pandemic EF assessments with anxiety and depression symptoms several months into the pandemic. We found that pre-pandemic inhibition and shifting difficulties, measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, predicted higher risk of anxiety symptoms. These findings are critical for promoting community recovery and maximizing clinical preparedness to support children at increased risk for adverse psychosocial outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the extent to which early cumulative risk predicts a range of behavioral and psychological outcomes (i.e., depression, future orientation, risky behavior, educational attainment, and socioeconomic outcomes) measured at ages 15 and 26 and whether executive function (EF) and/or behavioral regulation mediated and/or moderated these associations. Data for this study came from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development and included a sample of 1,364 participants (52% male) born in 1991 and followed through age 26. Results indicated that early cumulative risk was related to depression and risky behavior at age 15 as well as depression, income, future orientation, and educational attainment at age 26. Furthermore, both EF and behavioral regulation mediated relations among cumulative risk and academic achievement at age 15 and between cumulative risk and income and educational attainment at age 26. Finally, three significant interactions emerged for age 15 outcomes, indicating that EF and behavioral regulation may change relations between cumulative risk and depression, reading, and future orientation. Implications for future research are discussed. Public Significance Statement: This study found that early cumulative risk was related to depression and risky behavior at age 15 as well as depression, income, future orientation, and educational attainment at age 26. Furthermore, results indicated that executive function and/or behavioral regulation mediated and/or moderated relations among cumulative risk and outcomes at ages 15 and 26. These findings have implications for our theoretical understanding of the developmental processes through which early risk affects later development, health, and well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The present study used a cross-lagged panel design with longitudinal data to test if there is a reciprocal relationship between cognitive control beliefs and cognition (e.g., executive functioning and episodic memory) over 10 years, whether frequency of engaging in stimulating cognitive activities mediated this relationship, and if these relationships varied by age., Methods: Data were collected as part of the second (M2, 2004-2005) and third (M3, 2013-2014) waves of the Midlife in the United States Study. The analysis sample included 2,532 participants with all variables at M2 and M3. Participants' ages ranged from 33 to 83 (M = 54.92, standard deviation = 11.13) at M2., Results: There was a reciprocal relationship between cognitive control beliefs and executive functioning. Higher executive functioning was related to greater maintenance of cognitive control beliefs for older, not younger, adults. Higher cognitive control beliefs were related to less decline in executive functioning. Though cognitive control beliefs predicted 10-year changes in episodic memory, the inverse relationship was not supported. Frequency of engaging in stimulating cognitive activities mediated the relationship between executive functioning and 10-year changes in cognitive control beliefs, but not cognitive control beliefs and 10-year changes in cognition., Conclusions: Cognitive control beliefs are a promising mechanism to help protect against age-related declines in both executive functioning and episodic memory. Moreover, executive functioning also affects cognitive control beliefs. Specifically, those with higher executive functioning engage more frequently in stimulating cognitive activities, which helps maintain higher cognitive control beliefs., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine school-based speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') implementation of services to address students' executive function (EF) needs, with particular emphasis on the prevalence and characteristics of EF interventions and the factors and barriers that influence service provision for students with EF needs. Method: We applied an explanatory sequential mixed-methods research design, beginning with a quantitative survey followed by a series of qualitative interviews. We analyzed the survey results using descriptive data and binary logistic regressions and used the emergent trends to inform our interview protocol, so that we could explore those trends in greater detail and context. We synthesized our quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate the characteristics of EF interventions and the factors influencing services. Results: Most SLPs reported that they addressed their students' EF needs through some sort of direct or indirect intervention. Direct interventions varied by targeted domain, service delivery setting, and teaching techniques, though most SLPs favored strategy instruction and highly contextualized services. Indirect services included accommodations and consultation. SLPs commonly reported the lack of collaborative support, time, and knowledge as barriers, and most reported that professional development would be helpful to improve their services. Conclusions: Speech-language pathology graduate programs and providers of professional development should be mindful of their role in preparing SLPs to address EF needs, while SLPs may use these results to inform their own practice. Further guidance and research are necessary to elucidate the SLPs' role in mitigating the negative impact of EF challenges on students' education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Children with higher EF start school with higher levels of math skills. • Children with higher EF develop math skills faster through 2nd grade. • EF moderates growth in math from kindergarten through 2nd grade. • Children who enter school with high EF but low math may be able to catch up to peers. There is substantial rank-order stability in children's mathematical skills throughout development. Research has shown that children who enter school with relatively low math skills are unlikely to catch up to peers who begin kindergarten with more developed math skills. Emerging evidence suggests that children's executive function skills might play an important role in shaping the rate and stability of mathematical skill development during early development. Therefore in the present study, we used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort 2010-11—a prospective sample of over 18,000 children in the United States—to examine executive function as an antecedent to characteristics of growth in math skills and to test whether executive function moderates the longitudinal stability of math achievement from kindergarten through second grade. Latent growth curve models reveal that executive function is related to not only the level of math skills at school entry but also to the rate of growth in early elementary years. Moreover, we found that executive function moderated the stability of math achievement from kindergarten to second grade, suggesting that early executive function skills can serve as a compensatory mechanism for children who enter school with lower levels of mathematical skills. These findings might have important implications for narrowing gaps in math achievement during early elementary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To compare changes in cognitive trajectories after stroke between younger (18-64) and older (65+) adults, accounting for pre-stroke cognitive trajectories., Materials and Methods: Pooled cohort study using individual participant data from 3 US cohorts (1971-2019), the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities Study (ARIC), Framingham Offspring Study (FOS), and REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke Study (REGARDS). Linear mixed effect models evaluated the association between age and the initial change (intercept) and rate of change (slope) in cognition after compared to before stroke. Outcomes were global cognition (primary), memory and executive function., Results: We included 1,292 participants with stroke; 197 younger (47.2 % female, 32.5 % Black race) and 1,095 older (50.2 % female, 46.4 % Black race). Median (IQR) age at stroke was 59.7 (56.6-61.7) (younger group) and 75.2 (70.5-80.2) years (older group). Compared to the young, older participants had greater declines in global cognition (-1.69 point [95 % CI, -2.82 to -0.55] greater), memory (-1.05 point [95 % CI, -1.92 to -0.17] greater), and executive function (-3.72 point [95 % CI, -5.23 to -2.21] greater) initially after stroke. Older age was associated with faster declines in global cognition (-0.18 points per year [95 % CI, -0.36 to -0.01] faster) and executive function (-0.16 [95 % CI, -0.26 to -0.06] points per year for every 10 years of higher age), but not memory (-0.006 [95 % CI, -0.15 to 0.14]), after compared to before stroke., Conclusion: Older age was associated with greater post-stroke cognitive declines, accounting for differences in pre-stroke cognitive trajectories between the old and the young., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Authors report funding from the NIH (Springer, Briceno, Burke, Aparicio), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (Burke), Alzheimer's Association (Aparicio), American Academy of Neurology (Aparicio), and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Intramural Research Program (Gottesman)., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: The current study examined whether informal caregivers performed worse, better, or similar to non-caregivers on cognitive tests of executive functioning and episodic memory over 10 years. Methods: Data were from waves 2 (2003-04) and 3 (2013-14) of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study ( N = 2086). Multiple linear regression models examined whether caregiving at both waves 2 and 3 predicted better cognitive functioning at wave 3, than caregiving at only one time point or no caregiving (reference) while controlling for baseline covariates (i.e., sociodemographic, health, and functional status)., Results: After controlling for covariates, caregiving at both waves was independently associated with better performance in episodic memory ( b = .24, SE = .10, p = .013) but not executive function ( b = -.06, SE = .05, p = .246). Discussion: The findings partially supported both healthy caregiver and stress process models, indicating caregiving may be associated with better episodic memory but not executive functioning over time among the middle-aged and older adults., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Objective: Cross-culturally comparative data on measures of executive function (EF) are essential, but the 6-8-year group remains insufficiently described. This study examined the sociodemographic predictors of EF test performance employing the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB). It also compared developmental trends in EF among children from Uruguay, the United States, and Mexico., Method: EFs were assessed with the Intra-dimensional/Extra-dimensional shift, Spatial Span (SSP), and Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) tests from the CANTAB. The study sample consisted of 6-8-year-old children from the Salud Ambiental Montevideo (SAM) cohort in Uruguay. Differences between cohorts were examined, and we performed generalized linear regressions to assess the association between sociodemographic factors, and each EF domain., Results: The final sample consisted of 525 participants (mean age in months 82.5 ± 6.0). Across all ages, SAM children had significantly lower performance in the SSP and SOC tasks compared to U.S. and Mexican children. On the Intra-dimensional/Extra-dimensional shift task, SAM children had similar scores to U.S. and Mexican children. Mother's intelligence quotient (IQ; β = 0.01; 95% CI [0.005, 0.02]), child's IQ (0.02 [0.02, 0.03]), the HOME total score (0.02 [0.01, 0.03]), as well as HOME subscales of accompaniment (0.13 [0.07, 0.20]), enrichment (0.11 [0.06,0.16]), and physical environment (0.07 [0.03, 0.10]) were positively associated with the span length (SSP task). Child's IQ (0.02 [0.01,0.03]) was positively associated with the number of problems solved on the SOC test., Conclusion: Uruguayan children perform lower in working memory and planning tests than U.S. children but similarly to Mexican children, while cognitive flexibility is consistent across all groups. Further, mother and child IQ, as well as the home environment, are important predictors of EF. These differences should be examined in the context of diverse cultural values and sociodemographic factors affecting CANTAB construct validity in this population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective: To identify barriers and facilitators to implementation of a cognitive rehabilitation intervention (Short-Term Executive Plus [STEP]) into routine clinical practice using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) by comparing high (HI) and low implementation (LI) sites., Setting: Qualitative interviews conducted with professionals who work with people who have sustained brain injuries at various rehabilitations sites across the United States., Participants: Seven sites completed training, consultation, and agreed to implement STEP., Design: Retrospective qualitative study., Main Measures: Qualitative interview developed for the purposes of this study and the CFIR for evaluation of implementation efforts and identification of barriers and facilitators., Results: Out of 7 sites, 6 completed interviews. Out of the 39 CFIR constructs, 4 distinguished between HI and LI sites. Four distinguishing factors included evidence strength and quality, needs and resources of those served by the organization, leadership engagement, and engaging champions. Five common factors were identified (4 positive and 1 negative) across HI and LI sites, which may reflect aspects of implementation that could inform future implementation efforts. Ten inconclusive factors were identified, having both a positive and a negative influence on implementation., Conclusions: While there were several factors that were viewed positively by all sites, only 4 factors made a difference in implementation outcomes. These distinguishing factors can help inform future implementation efforts, highlighting a need for strong evidence supporting an intervention, a match between the intervention and the needs of the population served, engaging those in leadership and decision-making roles and ensuring their buy-in, and having a strong champion directly involved in implementation. In addition, taking a closer look at common and inconclusive factors may enable us to identify areas in which the implementation efforts could be strengthened., Competing Interests: The authors have no financial, consultant, institutional, or other relationships that might lead to bias or a conflict of interest. The contents of this manuscript were developed under a grant from the Centers for Disease Control − 3R49CE002092-05S1. The contents of this manuscript do not necessarily represent the policy of Centers for Disease Control; you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated cross-cultural variation in the development of executive functioning (EF) across the preschool period for United States and Chinese children from low and high socioeconomic families using a longitudinal design. Participants included 216 preschool children (n = 125 from the US; n = 91 from Shanghai and Jiangxi, China). On average, children were approximately 4 years old. In the US sample, 56% were female, and in the Chinese sample, 54% were female. Results from multi-level models varied slightly with regard to specific EF domains, but generally indicated that Chinese children experienced greater gains in EF during the preschool period compared to US children. Cross-cultural differences in EF growth did not vary by socioeconomic status. These findings highlight cultural variability in the development of EF and provide a foundation for additional research exploring factors that may help explain differential growth in EF for Chinese children compared to US children during the preschool period.

Objective: To conduct the first item-level exploration of scale and index structure of the self-report Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult version (BRIEF-A) in traumatic brain injury (TBI)., Design: This was an observational cross-sectional study design using secondary data. We conducted exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to explore the index structure and scale structure of the BRIEF-A. We conducted EFA with all 70 items of the BRIEF-A to examine the index structure. Based on the finding of index structure, we conducted EFA on the 30 items of the Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI) and the 40 items of the Metacognitive Index (MI)., Setting: Data were collected through 5 studies in outpatient and community settings in the southeast United States., Participants: Individuals (N=338) aged 18-89 years with a history of mild to severe TBI who were able to speak English fluently., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: The BRIEF-A., Results: The 2-factor structure aligned with the BRIEF-A manual at the index level. Scale structure for the MI (40 items) resulted in 1 factor, whereas the BRI (30 items) could be represented by either a 2- or 3-factor structure. The 2-factor structure of the BRI is more parsimonious and matched other factor analyses derived from the sum of scale items., Conclusions: We confirmed the manual designated index structure (BRI and MI) of the BRIEF-A but took precautions against using the 9 scales. Instead, we recommend using the 2 designated index scores and 2 newly identified composite scores representing Behavioral Control Trait and Emotional Control Trait., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Aims: Little information exists on the associations of cardiovascular health, a new metric proposed by the American Heart Association, and executive function, particularly in children. We aimed to explore this topic. Methods: We studied 3,798 children aged 6-12 years from 5 schools in Guangzhou, China. The executive function of children was evaluated using parent reports of the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function, which included 2 composite indexes and 8 subscale scores. We calculated the number of ideal cardiovascular health (range: 0-7) based on smoking, body mass index, physical activity (PA), diet, blood pressure, cholesterol, and glucose. A generalized linear mixed model was used to assess the association of the number of ideal cardiovascular health metrics and executive function. Results: Compared with children exhibiting 1-3 ideal cardiovascular health metrics, decreases of 1.37-2.63 points (indicating better performance) in metacognition index and its 5 subscale indexes (initiate, working memory, plan/organize, organization of materials, and monitor) were observed in children who attained 5 or 6-7 ideal metrics (all p for trend <0.001). Ideal diet and ideal PA were independently associated with lower indexes of behavioral regulation and metacognition. Conclusions: The number of ideal cardiovascular health was positively associated with performance of executive function in children., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Gui, Cai, Lv, Lai, Zeng and Chen.)

Although it is well established that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) buffers against declines in cognitive health, less is known about the benefits of light physical activity (LPA). Research on the role of LPA is crucial to advancing behavioral interventions to improve late life health outcomes, including cognitive functioning, because this form of physical activity remains more feasible and amenable to change in old age. Our study examined the extent to which increases in LPA frequency protected against longitudinal declines in cognitive functioning and whether such a relationship becomes pronounced in old age when opportunities for MVPA are typically reduced. We analyzed 9-year data from the national Midlife in the United States Study (n = 2,229; M age = 56 years, range = 33-83; 56% female) using autoregressive models that assessed whether change in LPA frequency predicted corresponding changes in episodic memory and executive functioning in middle and later adulthood. Increases in LPA frequency predicted less decline in episodic memory (β = 0.06, p = .004) and executive functioning (β = 0.14, p < .001) over the 9-year follow-up period, even when controlling for moderate and vigorous physical activity. Effect sizes for moderate and vigorous physical activity were less than half that observed for LPA. Moderation models showed that, for episodic memory, the benefits of increases in LPA frequency were more pronounced at older ages. Findings suggest that increases in LPA over extended periods of time may help slow age-related cognitive declines, particularly in later life when opportunities for MVPA are often diminished., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The early childhood years are critical for developing executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). Prior literature suggests a robust relationship between EF and ToM; however, this relationship has seldom been investigated in children living in poverty. In addition, few studies have employed comprehensive ToM measures to explore how EF relates to different components of ToM. This study examined longitudinal relations between EF and ToM among 86 preschool children (3- to 5-year-old) attending Head Start programs in the United States. Children completed two EF tasks and a 5-task ToM battery twice, four months apart. Results showed that, for children living in poverty, early EF did not significantly predict later ToM as a composite after controlling for significant covariates. However, the emotionally salient component of ToM predicted children's later Stroop performance, above and beyond several controls. Findings suggest that for impoverished children living in the U.S., the development of emotional perspective-taking may be particularly important for EF development compared to other components of ToM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aimed to examine longitudinal associations of workplace effort and reward with changes in cognitive function among United States workers., Methods: Data from the national, population-based Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study with a 9-year follow-up were used. Validated workplace effort and reward scales were measured at baseline, and cognitive outcomes (including composite cognition, episodic memory, and executive functioning) were measured with the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) at baseline and follow-up. Multivariable linear regression analyses based on generalized estimating equations (GEE) examined the longitudinal associations under study., Results: Among this worker sample of 1,399, after accounting for demographics, socioeconomics, lifestyle behaviors, health conditions, and job control, high reward at baseline was associated with increased composite cognition (regression coefficient: 0.118 [95% CI: 0.049, 0.187]), episodic memory (0.106 [0.024, 0.188]), and executive functioning (0.123 [0.055, 0.191]) during follow-up. The joint exposure of 'high effort and high reward' was also associated with increased composite cognition (0.130 [0.030, 0.231]), episodic memory (0.131 [0.012, 0.250]), and executive functioning (0.117 [0.017, 0.216]), while the combination of 'low effort and high reward' was associated with increased composite cognition (0.106 [0.009, 0.204]) and executive functioning (0.139 [0.042, 0.235])., Conclusion: Findings suggest that workplace high reward is related to improved cognitive scores among United States workers. Future research should investigate larger cohorts over longer timespans and expand into disease outcomes such as dementia. If these findings emerge as causal, relevant workplace rewards to promote worker cognitive health should be considered., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The documented challenges of the early care and education (ECE) workforce include poor well-being, inadequate compensation, and high turnover rates. The COVID-19 pandemic not only exacerbated these issues, but also imposed additional demands such as virtual instruction, highlighting the need to understand how teachers' well-being relates to their adaptability in teaching. The present study examined whether early childhood teachers' well-being is directly and indirectly related to adaptability to virtual instruction via teachers' executive function during the COVID-19 pandemic. With a research-practice partnership project in a Head Start program in a metropolitan area in the central United States, data were collected from the Early Head Start/Head Start annual teacher survey (n = 148). Mediation analysis showed that teachers who demonstrated higher well-being displayed higher levels of executive function, which in turn was associated with greater adaptability in virtual instruction. Beyond the pandemic, findings highlight the importance of supporting teachers' well-being and executive functions to promote adaptability, which is critical not only in virtual instruction, but also in successfully navigating other challenges of the teaching profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although policies to remove lead from gasoline have resulted in a substantial reduction in airborne lead, multiple industries are known to generate lead that is released in the air. The present study examines the extent to which residential proximity to a documented source of airborne lead is associated with intellectual and executive function in children. Data were available for n = 849 children from the Family Life Project. Geolocation for children's residences between birth and 36 months were referenced against the Environmental Protection Agency's Risk Screening Environmental Indicators (RSEI) database, which estimates exposure for each ½ mile grid in the contiguous United States. Instrumental variable models were employed to estimate causal associations between exposure and cognitive outcomes measured at 36, 48, and 60 months, using census-documented density of manufacturing employment as the instrument. Models of continuous lead dosage indicated small negative effects for both child IQ and executive function (EF). These results indicate that RSEI estimates of airborne lead exposure are meaningfully associated with decrements in cognitive development., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Previous studies in older adults found robust associations between executive functions (EF) and physical performance, as well as sociodemographic variation in physical performance decline. To examine these associations earlier in the adult lifespan, we investigated relations of EF, race, and sex with age-related physical performance decline during middle adulthood., Method: Participants were 2,084 urban-dwelling adults (57.2% female; 57.8% African American; 37.3% living in poverty; mean baseline age = 48.1) from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span study. Mixed-effects regression was used to examine interactive relations among EF, race, sex, and age (indexing time) with change in dominant and nondominant handgrip strength and lower extremity strength over approximately 5 years. All analyses adjusted for poverty status, and subsequently adjusted for education, body mass index, hypertension, and diabetes., Results: There were no significant prospective associations between EF and decline in physical performance measures. Significant cross-sectional associations revealed that lower EF was associated with worse performance on all physical performance measures averaged across both time points (p < .05). A significant two-way interaction of Sex × Age (p = .019) revealed that men experienced greater age-related decline in lower extremity strength than women., Discussion: Findings did not reveal prospective associations between EF and physical performance decline in middle adulthood. However, they identified robust cross-sectional associations between EF and physical performance, and unexpectedly greater decline in lower extremity strength in men than women. Ultimately, these findings may inform prevention and intervention strategies targeting groups at risk for poorer physical function status and decline., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

As research into the postural and cognitive effects of ultramarathon running is sparse and still needed, we investigated the effect of ultramarathon running on runners' postural control, dual task postural control and a measure of executive function—the flanker test, expecting fatigue-related deterioration on each measure. We used a pre- and post-test research design with 14 runners who completed (a) postural assessment with eyes open and closed, on a flat surface and on foam during (b) a two-choice reaction time dual task postural assessment, and (c) an executive function modified flanker task. With regard to postural stability, we observed, after running, increased anterior-posterior (AP) path length and AP root mean square (RMS) and reductions in both mediolateral (ML) RMS and ML median frequency. Dual task analysis showed reduced ML RMS prior to the race, whereas the effect was absent afterwards. Reaction times were not significantly altered between pre-post or surface conditions assessments. There were no statistically significant differences in mean modified flanker scores before and after the race. These data demonstrated that, following an endurance run, there were plane specific movement adaptations in postural sway that may have resulted from neuroprotective changes under extreme fatigue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Executive Functioning (EF) is a construct that is considered central to cognitive development and has recently garnered attention for its potential role in social functioning. This study investigated the relationship between EF and social skill using both multiple regression and relative weights analyses. Participants: A sample of undergraduate college students in the U.S. (N = 257; Nfemale = 145; Mage = 19.51) participated for course credit. Methods: Participants completed an online survey. Data were analyzed using multiple regression and relative weights analysis to better understand the unique contribution of EF skills to specific social skills. Results: For some dimensions of EF, ability positively correlated with adaptive social outcome, whereas for some other dimensions, lower ability correlated with positive social outcomes. Conclusions: EF may play a role in the general social functioning of college students, though the relationship appears complex and domain-specific. Statement of relevance: Social interaction is one of the most important things that humans do on a day-to-day basis, impacting both mental and physical wellness. College is a particularly important period where social interaction becomes increasingly important as well as complex. While there is no currently agreed upon cognitive basis of social interaction, the executive function (EF) system is believed to play a central role. The current study provides further evidence of the role of the EF system across different social skills in addition to highlighting the complexity of these relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cadence-controlled walking may be a desirable approach for older adults to self-monitor exercise intensity and achieve physical activity guidelines. We examined the acute effects of cadence-controlled walking on cognition and vascular function in physically inactive older adults. Methods: In a randomized crossover design, 26 participants (65% females, 67.8 ± 11.3 years) underwent 30-min acute exercise (walking at 100 steps/min) and control (sitting) conditions. We measured cognition, central blood pressure (BP), and arterial stiffness before, and immediately, after each condition. Results: We observed significant Time × Condition interactions in the Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention (Flanker) test and Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) test scores, and in central systolic BP, central pulse pressure, and carotid to femoral pulse wave velocity (p <.05). The Flanker and DCCS scores significantly increased after walking (d = 0.4 and 0.5, respectively), but not after sitting. Central systolic BP, central pulse pressure, and carotid to femoral pulse wave velocity significantly increased after sitting but remained unchanged after acute walking (d = 0.4–0.2), with p-values <.05. After walking, significant correlations were observed between DCCS and diastolic BP and central pulse pressure change scores and change scores in central pulse wave velocity, Flanker, and DCCS (rs = −0.45 to −0.52). Conclusion: These findings suggest that a single bout of cadence-controlled walking elicited an immediate improvement in cognition and might have mitigated increases in arterial stiffness and central BP observed in the seated control condition. Further research is needed to examine the association between cognition and vascular function following acute exercise compared to control conditions. Significance: Our findings may have practical implications for developing daily physical activity recommendations for improving the cognitive health for successful aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The family food environment plays an important role in supporting children's dietary quality, regulating eating behaviors, and promoting a healthy weight status. However, relatively little is known regarding parent-level factors that support or hinder parents' ability to create health-promoting family food environments. The current study examines whether executive function among mothers, or mothers' capacity to control their thoughts, emotions, and actions, is associated with qualities of the family food environment that support children's healthy eating and weight. Cross-sectional data were collected from 492 US-based mothers of 2 to 9-year-old children in August 2017 (Mean maternal age = 34.2 years (SD = 6.7), 76.5% White race). Mothers' difficulties with executive function were measured using the Behavior Rating of Executive Function-Adult Version and family food environment characteristics were measured via psychometrically-sound, self-report surveys. Standardized, linear regression models were used to examine covariate-adjusted associations between mothers' executive function difficulties and family food environment characteristics, as well as the potential for differences in these associations by family sociodemographic characteristics. Mothers with more executive function difficulties consistently reported less use of recommended food-related parenting practices and less healthful home food environment characteristics including providing frequent family meals, implementing consistent mealtime schedules and structure, and avoiding using food to regulate children's emotions. No differences in these associations were observed by mothers' educational attainment, household income-to-needs ratio, or child age. Results suggest that lower executive function may interfere with mothers' ability to create family food environments that support children's healthy eating and weight., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The authors examined task-based (i.e., executive function), surveyed (i.e., effortful control), and physiological (i.e., resting cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) measures of child and maternal regulation as distinct moderators of longitudinal bidirectional links between child externalizing (EXT) behaviors and harsh parenting (HP) from 6 to 9 years. The sample size was 299 (50.9% female; 1% Asian, 4% multiple races; 14% Black; 78% White), and participants were recruited in the United States (a rural college town in Virginia and a midsized city in North Carolina). Higher child EXT at 6 years predicted higher HP at 7–8 years, which predicted higher EXT at 9 years. Also, this path was moderated by 6-year child effortful control, 6-year resting RSA, and 9-year executive function. In contrast, there was no moderating effect of any measure of maternal regulation. Findings suggest it is important to consider child self-regulation when examining bidirectionality in parent and child effects for HP and child EXT. Public Significance Statement: The present study adds impetus for utilizing a variety of measures and indicators of children's and their parents' regulation capacities when addressing child risk for behavioral problems. Distinct effects are found depending on the indicator of regulation. This has implications for prevention and intervention efforts in the family setting, to improve child regulation skills and reduce behavioral problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across industrialized nations, children and teens are a highly prized target for the advertising industry because young people have a tremendous influence on family purchases; however, media scholars have long suggested that young people are a fundamentally vulnerable audience because they lack the necessary developmental competencies to adequately process and protect themselves from advertising communications. Yet, the precise developmental mechanisms have not been clearly articulated nor is there a clear understanding of how these competencies extend across childhood contexts (e.g., developmental phase, cultures). The current study seeks to lend clarity to this matter by looking at the potential influence that children's executive function and emotion regulation have on the relationship between television exposure (as a proxy of exposure to advertising messages and other consumption-oriented media content) and consumer behavior across a broad range of ages from two wealthy industrialized countries. Mothers of young elementary school children (5-8 years) and early adolescents (9-12 years) in the Netherlands (N = 333, 51.7% female child) and the United States of America (N = 810, 49.6% female child) took part in an online survey to report on their child's cognitive/affective development, media use, and consumer behavior (i.e., purchase requests, purchase related conflict). The results showed that across ages, executive function via attentional shifting moderated the link between purchase requests and purchase conflict, whereas positively valenced emotion regulation moderated the same relationship but only for older children. Lastly, the findings revealed that while there are differences in reported behavior among children in these two countries, the developmental processes tend to work in the same manner. The discussion focuses on what these findings mean for children's consumer development as they approach adolescence and how researchers and child advocates should take these developmental factors into account when considering children's potential vulnerability as consumers.

Learning a second language in childhood is inherently advantageous for communication. However, parents, educators and scientists have been interested in determining whether there are additional cognitive advantages. One of the most exciting yet controversial 1 findings about bilinguals is a reported advantage for executive function. That is, several studies suggest that bilinguals perform better than monolinguals on tasks assessing cognitive abilities that are central to the voluntary control of thoughts and behaviours-the so-called 'executive functions' (for example, attention, inhibitory control, task switching and resolving conflict). Although a number of small- 2-4 and large-sample 5,6 studies have reported a bilingual executive function advantage (see refs. 7-9 for a review), there have been several failures to replicate these findings 10-15 , and recent meta-analyses have called into question the reliability of the original empirical claims 8,9 . Here we show, in a very large, demographically representative sample (n = 4,524) of 9- to 10-year-olds across the United States, that there is little evidence for a bilingual advantage for inhibitory control, attention and task switching, or cognitive flexibility, which are key aspects of executive function. We also replicate previously reported disadvantages in English vocabulary in bilinguals 7,16,17 . However, these English vocabulary differences are substantially mitigated when we account for individual differences in socioeconomic status or intelligence. In summary, notwithstanding the inherently positive benefits of learning a second language in childhood 18 , we found little evidence that it engenders additional benefits to executive function development.

• Engagement in social pretense predicted preschoolers' inhibitory control growth. • Gains associated with social pretense held controlling for other forms of social play. • Solitary pretense did not predict gains in inhibitory control. Recent experimental evidence suggests that engaging in pretend play can improve children's executive functions (EFs). Yet, evidence regarding how play relates to the development of EF remains sparse. The current study investigated whether preschoolers' social and solitary pretend play over the course of one preschool year predicted growth in inhibitory control, a key component of EF. Participants were 132 Spanish-speaking preschoolers (M age = 53 months) from 10 Head Start classrooms in the southwest United States. Multiple 15-s naturalistic observations of children's interactions (e.g., social, solitary) and activities (e.g., pretense, non-pretense) were gathered across free-play classroom contexts. Among observed play behaviors, social pretense was the only predictor of inhibitory control growth in preschool contexts. The current study speaks to the importance of continued research on play-based interventions, especially in diverse populations, and corroborates a growing body of theoretical and empirical evidence for the importance of pretend play in the development of EF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• For English outcomes, working memory was related with code-related skills. • For English outcomes, inhibitory control was related with language-related skills. • For Spanish outcomes, working memory was related to both code and language skills. • Measurement language of executive function made little difference in outcomes. • For Spanish outcomes, early literacy mediated preschool executive function. In the United States, children whose home language is Spanish are at increased risk for the development of reading difficulties. Studies have reported a link between executive function (EF) and reading; few studies have examined this linkage in Spanish-speaking language-minority (LM) children. This longitudinal study examined the association between preschool EF and kindergarten reading-related skills in 241 Spanish-speaking LM children (M -age in preschool = 54.23 months, SD = 6.17). In preschool, children completed measures of inhibitory control (IC) and working memory (WM) in their dominant language, and early literacy skills in Spanish and English. In the fall of their kindergarten year, children completed code- and language-related literacy measures in both languages. A 2-factor model (IC and WM) accounted for children's preschool EF. Most zero-order correlations between EF factors and kindergarten outcomes in Spanish (r s = 0.03-0.40) and English (r s = 0.05-0.35) were statistically significant. For English-language outcomes, WM was more strongly associated with code-related skills and IC with language-related skills; for Spanish-language outcomes, WM was more strongly related to both code- and language-related skills than IC. There was little difference in the associations between EF and reading outcomes based on the language in which EF was measured (i.e., the child's dominant language). When controlling for early literacy skills in the same language as the kindergarten outcomes, EF contributed significant unique variance to kindergarten skills in English but not in Spanish. For Spanish language outcomes, early literacy skills appear to mediate the role of preschool EF. The results suggest that children's development in cognitive domains, such as EF, may have an important role in the acquisition of core early reading skills for Spanish-speaking LM children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children and adolescents with mild to moderate chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at high risk for mild but persistent impairment in executive functions, which have been associated with low health‐related quality of life (HRQOL) among children and adolescents with chronic health conditions. However, no similar link has been established among children and adolescents with mild to moderate CKD. Given the essential role executive functions play in the development of adequate cognitive, emotional and social skills, it is essential to gain a clearer understating of the magnitude and attributes of executive functions and its link to HRQOL in order to inform appropriate medical and educational interventions for this patient population. Objective: The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between executive functions, socio‐emotional functioning and HRQOL in children and adolescents with mild to moderate CKD. Methods: A cross‐sectional design was used for this secondary data analysis of 199 children and adolescents (ages 6–17) with mild to moderate CKD from the United States and Canada who receive care at hospitals associated with the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children Study (CKiD). Results: The presence of impairment in executive functions and socio‐emotional functioning (internalizing problems) significantly predicted lower HRQOL after controlling for key covariates (i.e., maternal education, anaemia and hypertension). Further, internalizing problems partially mediated the relationship between executive functions and HRQOL such that impairment in executive functions predicted lower HRQOL directly and indirectly by contributing to higher internalizing problems, which further contributed to low HRQOL. Conclusion: This study underscores the importance of executive functions and socio‐emotional functioning in the manifestation of HRQOL. Given that HRQOL is potentially compromised for many children and adolescents with mild to moderate CKD, it will be important for both clinicians and researchers to examine a range of factors, including executive functions and socio‐emotional functioning, in order to optimize HRQOL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined longitudinal associations between preschoolers' executive function (EF) and adult educational attainment, impulse control, and general health directly and through its cascading effects on childhood and adolescent EF using a large, national, and prospective longitudinal sample of participants. Data were drawn from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD) and included a diverse sample (52% male at birth; 76% White; 13% Black: 6% Hispanic; and 5% other; 14.23 mean years of maternal education) of 1,364 participants born in 1991 and followed through age 26. Four main findings emerged. First, we observed significant bivariate relations between EF measured at 54 months and adult educational attainment (r = .36, p < .01), and impulse control (r = .11, p = .01), Second, early EF measured during preschool and childhood explained variance in adult educational attainment and impulse control above and beyond adolescent EF. Third. childhood EF mediated the association between preschool EF and adult educational attainment and impulse control but did not operate through adolescent EF. Finally, neither preschool EF nor EF measured at other developmental stages predicted health during adulthood. Together, these findings shed light on the direct and cascading influences of EF across development on important domains of adult functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Emerging literature suggests that fine particulate matter [with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5)] air pollution and its components are linked to various neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, few studies have evaluated how PM2.5 component mixtures from distinct sources relate to cognitive outcomes in children. OBJECTIVES: This cross-sectional study investigated how ambient concentrations of PM2.5 component mixtures relate to neurocognitive performance in 9- to 10-year-old children, as well as explored potential source-specific effects of these associations, across the US. METHODS: Using spatiotemporal hybrid models, annual concentrations of 15 chemical components of PM2.5 were estimated based on the residential address of child participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. General cognitive ability, executive function, and learning/memory scores were derived from the NIH Toolbox. We applied positive matrix factorization to identify six major PM2.5 sources based on the 15 components, which included crustal, ammonium sulfate, biomass burning, traffic, ammonium nitrate, and industrial/residual fuel burning. We then utilized weighted quantile sum (WQS) and linear regression models to investigate associations between PM2.5 components’ mixture, their potential sources, and children’s cognitive scores. RESULTS: Mixture modeling revealed associations between cumulative exposure and worse cognitive performance across all three outcome domains, including shared overlap in detrimental effects driven by ammonium nitrates, silicon, and calcium. Using the identified six sources of exposure, source-specific negative associations were identified between ammonium nitrates and learning & memory, traffic and executive function, and crustal and industrial mixtures and general cognitive ability. Unexpected positive associations were also seen between traffic and general ability as well as biomass burning and executive function. DISCUSSION: This work suggests nuanced associations between outdoor PM2.5 exposure and childhood cognitive performance, including important differences in cognition related both to individual chemicals as well as to specific sources of these exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Converging evidence suggests that homeless and highly mobile children in the United States often begin school with limited school readiness skills, such as academic knowledge and socioemotional competencies. Research also indicates that executive function (EF) is foundational to learning and social skills in young children, including those experiencing homelessness. These findings suggest that school readiness could be improved by targeting EF skills. The current pilot study examined implementation and promise of Ready? Set. Go! (RSG) – a brief intervention developed to improve EF among high-risk preschoolers through teacher training, EF-focused activities, individualized child coaching, and parent education. Participants were 75 preschoolers from an emergency homeless shelter and community organization serving similarly disadvantaged families. Results indicated RSG was appealing to parents and teachers and could be implemented with high fidelity. Children who received RSG showed significantly greater improvements in their EF skills than comparison children 1 month after the intervention ended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study used a large, nationally representative sample of Head Start children (N=3,349) from the Family and Child Experiences Survey of 2009 (FACES) to examine associations among maternal depression (measured when children were ˜36 months old) and children's executive function (EF) and behavior problems (measured when children were ˜48 months old). Preliminary analyses revealed that 36% of mothers in the sample had clinically significant levels of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, a path analysis with demographic controls showed a mediation effect that was significant and quite specific; mother-reported warmth (and not mother-child reading) mediated the path between maternal depression, children's EF, and behavior problems. Findings provide empirical support for a family process model in which warm, sensitive parenting supports children's emerging self-regulation and reduces the likelihood of early onset behavior problems in families in which children are exposed to maternal depression., (© 2018 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.)

Efforts to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in school-age children are associated with improved health, cognitive, and academic outcomes. However, questions remain about whether similar benefits are observed in early childhood. We hypothesized that motor competence, not MVPA, would be related to improved cognitive and academic skill development in early childhood. For this study, 283 children were recruited from 13 community-based preschools (55% female; M = 4.2 years old, SD =.6; 41% non-Hispanic White, 37% non-Hispanic Black; 10% Hispanic, 10% mixed race, 2% Asian, 1% American Indian). Children's physical activity, motor competence, executive function (EF), and math problem-solving skills were measured using the same protocol in three assessments in a single academic year (i.e., fall, winter, spring). Although motor competence was strongly correlated with contemporaneous measures of EF and math problem-solving skills (rs =.51–.63), MVPA was weakly correlated with EF and math problem-solving skills (rs =.03–.18). Mixed linear models demonstrated that improvements in children's motor competence were related to improvements in their EF and math problem-solving skills (ps <.001), their improvements in MVPA were not statistically significant related to any of the outcomes. These within-child associations provide a stronger basis of inference by controlling for all time-invariant confounders. The results of this study suggest that efforts to improve motor competence skills in young children may improve EF and math problem-solving skills, though experimental studies are required to rigorously test this idea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Midlife blood pressure is associated with structural brain changes, cognitive decline, and dementia in late life. However, the relationship between early adulthood blood pressure exposure, brain structure and function, and cognitive performance in midlife is not known. A better understanding of these relationships in the preclinical stage may advance our mechanistic understanding of vascular contributions to late-life cognitive decline and dementia and may provide early therapeutic targets. To identify resting-state functional connectivity of executive control networks (ECNs), a group independent components analysis was performed of functional MRI scans of 600 individuals from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults longitudinal cohort study, with cumulative systolic blood pressure (cSBP) measured at nine visits over the preceding 30 y. Dual regression analysis investigated performance-related connectivity of ECNs in 578 individuals (mean age 55.5 ± 3.6 y, 323 female, 243 Black) with data from the Stroop color-word task of executive function. Greater connectivity of a left ECN to the bilateral anterior gyrus rectus, right posterior orbitofrontal cortex, and nucleus accumbens was associated with better executive control performance on the Stroop. Mediation analyses showed that while the relationship between cSBP and Stroop performance was mediated by white matter hyperintensities (WMH), resting-state connectivity of the ECN mediated the relationship between WMH and executive function. Increased connectivity of the left ECN to regions involved in reward processing appears to compensate for the deleterious effects of WMH on executive function in individuals across the burden of cumulative systolic blood pressure exposure in midlife., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.

Highlights • Higher levels of executive function were related to better school readiness. • Increased socioeconomic status was associated with better school readiness. • Socioeconomic status indirectly impacted school readiness through set-shifting. • Household chaos was negatively associated with school readiness. Abstract Isolating child attributes and familial characteristics that support school readiness in children on the upper half of the socioeconomic spectrum can complement existing research on lower-socioeconomic status (SES) children and facilitate a more complete understanding of how children's performance varies across the full SES spectrum. This study examined if relations between SES, two components of executive function (EF; set-shifting and inhibitory control), and school readiness vary as a function of household chaos in 564 four-year-old children, primarily from middle- to upper-middle class families in the Northeast Region of the United States. Structural equation modeling of direct and indirect effects revealed three major findings: (1) higher levels of EF were related to better school readiness regardless of level of household chaos; (2) SES had an indirect effect on school readiness through set-shifting; and (3) household chaos was negatively associated with school readiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we address one potentially overlooked component of the relation between executive function (EF) skills and early mathematics, a relation for which there is widespread empirical support. Evidence for this relation has, thus far, been largely correlational. Here we emphasize that because positive correlations do not guarantee concordance among all members of a sample or population, a small but meaningful number of children may either fare well in mathematics despite poor EF skills, or may have strong EF skills despite weak mathematics skills. We propose that attention to different profiles of discordance for EF and mathematics may help identify individualized learning needs for students at risk for mathematics difficulties and disabilities., (© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dementia affects multiple aspects of cognitive functioning, including working memory and executive functioning. Memory self-efficacy (MSE) has previously been related to episodic memory performance and to executive functioning, but little research has examined the relations between MSE and working memory. United States older adults (N = 197) were recruited via MTurk to complete an MSE questionnaire before completing a digit span working memory task. Hierarchical regression results revealed that the model accounted for a significant amount of variance in working memory performance after statistically controlling for several covariates, F(11, 179) = 4.94, p <.001, adjusted R2 =.19. MSE explained a large and unique portion of variance (B = 1.02, SE = 0.17, p <.001). Based on our findings, one's beliefs about their memory are positively associated with their working memory performance. These novel findings provide support for neuropsychologists to consider using MSE measures and utilizing MSE interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]