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The aim of this paper is to assess to what extent prohibitive drug policies hamper the management of drug problems from the perspective of young people who have experience with the criminal justice systems (CJS). Qualitative, in-depth interviews were carried out in six European countries (Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Poland, and the UK) following a common interview guide to obtain comparative data on the life trajectories of drug experienced youth. Altogether 198 interviews with people aged 14–25 years were collected and analysed by national teams following a common coding book. Unintended consequences of drug policies for the individual and society were identified. Individual consequences included health consequences and traumatic experiences with law enforcement. Social consequences included those affecting social relations such as stigmatisation and those impacting on institutions, for example, focusing on drug use and neglecting other problems. This paper confirmed earlier research indicating unintended consequences of prohibitive drug policies but also added to the literature its cross-national perspective and use of young people narratives as a source of analyses. There are, however, policy measures available that may reduce the volume and range of unintended effects. Their implementation is crucial to reduce the array of unintended consequences of prohibitive drug policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will be the result of research and query in the state archive in Zielona Góra. I want to present criminals and criminality after WW II on the western territory of Poland, which before 1945 was a part of Germany (Northern Silesia). On those territories there was an displacement of population after the war ended. The Germans were deported to Germany within its new borders and the Poles, in turn, arrived from Central and the former Eastern Poland which was annexed by the Soviet Union. After WW II those people started a brand new life on the so - called Recovered Territories. This paper will analyse judicature of two regional courts in Zielona Góra and Głogów based in Nowa Sól (Northern part of the former Prussian province of Silesia). The author of this paper will present the situation connected with criminality on those territories based on criminal cases and published diaries by Polish settlers living in that part of Silesia. That will include not only registered criminality but also crimes 'undetectable' for the statistics - unregistered crimes, whose victims were not reported to the police. Information about crimes committed on those territories was very often mentioned only in the diaries of those settlers. The main aim of this article is to depict characteristic of criminality and criminals when the population changed its place and social bonds were disintegrated. The author would like to ask some important questions: Who were the criminals? Were they average or maybe demoralized persons? What were the motives of the crimes they committed? What crimes were the most common? Criminal (e.g. robbery, rape, murder) or perhaps political ones? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The practice of short-term imprisonment has been long criticised due to its criminogenic effect and costs. To minimise its use, many European countries introduced alternative sanctions such as community service or home confinement with electronic monitoring. Unfortunately, in practice those sanctions are often imposed on non prison-bound offenders, a phenomenon termed 'the net-widening problem'. Consequently, instead of reducing the prison population, the alternative sanctions substitute lighter punishments such as fines or conditional imprisonment. The discretion power whether to impose a prison sentence or its alternatives lies in the hands of the judges. Therefore, the way to enhance the use of alternative sanctions as a substitute to short-term imprisonment is to change the behaviour of judges. This paper adopts the behavioural law and economics approach to discuss, in the context of European criminal justice systems, how certain procedural rules overcome or use cognitive biases in order to promote the use of alternative sanctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The engagement of young people has been a neglected area in youth justice and drug policy and practice. This paper explores the concept of 'engagement' in relation to drug interventions in custodial and community settings in different European countries. Interviews were undertaken with young people (aged 14–25 years) in contact with the criminal justice system who use illegal drugs and with practitioners involved in the delivery of interventions for our target group in Denmark, Italy, Poland, and the UK. The key techniques to engage young people were described in similar terms across the countries. These included forming relationships based on trust, honesty, and empathy, setting goals collaboratively, and employing practitioners with lived experience and understanding. The objectives and activities on offer are often constrained by criminal justice contexts. Despite the differences between the countries in terms of criminal justice systems and the structure of drug interventions, there were remarkable similarities in the ways young people and practitioners described effective engagement. Strong emphasis on operational engagement to ensure positive relationships between young people and practitioners was important in the design and delivery of interventions. Practitioners working in criminal justice contexts need to have flexibility and autonomy to work creatively to find ways to engage, connect, and inspire young people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on research undertaken as part of the EU funded EPPIC project, this paper aims to update and elaborate on the relationship between drug use and offending behaviours by exploring variations within a cross-national sample of drug-experienced young people in touch with criminal justice systems. Adopting a trajectory-based approach, interviews were undertaken with 198 young people aged 15–25 in six European countries (Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Poland, and UK). Data were analysed by applying the Bennett and Holloway categorization of the drugs-crime link, with a focus on the concept of social exclusion as developed by Seddon. Three main types of mechanisms (economic, pharmaceutical, and lifestyles) are used to interpret the data, showing how the relationship between drugs and offending can vary according to type of substances and over time. Furthermore, it can be associated with very different degrees of social exclusion and needs. The results suggest that while economic inequalities still play key roles in explaining drug use and offending, both behaviours can originate from a state of relative deprivation, resulting from the contradictions inherent in 'bulimic societies' that raise aspirations and desires while providing young people scarce opportunities for self-realisation and social recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the hypothesis that litigants' perceived procedural justice is positively associated with their trust in judges. We argue that although this association might seem quite robust, it can vary across contexts. In particular, we suggest that the nature and magnitude of the association between procedural justice and trust in judges depends on outcome concerns, and other sociolegal moderators such as outcome importance and prior court experience. We tested our predictions in three different types of law cases among 483 litigants at court hearings of the district court of the Mid‐Netherlands. As predicted, our results indicate that perceived procedural justice was positively associated with trust in judges when outcomes were relatively favorable, and that this association was even stronger when outcomes were relatively unfavorable. The courtroom context studied here enabled us to explore how other sociolegal variables moderated these relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Service of proceedings on the defendant must be effected in such a way that he is able to adequately defend his legal position and is therefore directly linked to Article 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights and to Article 47 of the Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union (EU). The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has dealt with service-related issues on many occasions, and so has also the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), especially when dealing with difficulties detected by national courts facing the application of EU legislation. Indeed, the EU lawmaker has been aware of the relevance of first service of process and has afforded it a very significant attention: when regulating cross-border service of the claim; in the context of specific "EU" civil proceedings (like the EU order for payment procedure, the EU small claims procedure or the EU account preservation order); and in the framework of recognition and enforcement of foreign decisions. It is the aim of this paper to analyse the way in which first service of process has been addressed in European legislation, and also, from the point of view of case-law, the way in which the ECtHR and the CJEU have approached this issue. By analysing both Regulations and case-law it may be possible to extract minimum European standards regarding this procedural safeguard which, undoubtedly, can serve as a starting point for EU legislative implementation and, in a perhaps not-so-distant future, to standardize national codes of procedural law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The right of children to be heard is acknowledged as a fundamental human right, as the European Court of Human Rights in the case Iglesias Casarrubios and Cantalapiedra Iglesias v Spain of 11 October 2016 emphasized. In the Brussels IIa Regulation this right plays a crucial role. On 30 June 2016, the European Union Commission issued a Recast Proposal of this Regulation, which suggests amending it in several aspects including the hearing of the child. This paper analyzes how the Brussels IIa Regulation addresses the right of the child to be heard and the amendments suggested by its Recast Proposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the main results of a European project on restorative justice (RJ) called Freedom Wings (FW) and presents a new model to promote RJ in Southern Europe, which was developed from FW findings. The principal mission of the FW project is to disseminate best practices of RJ within a transnational network and to promote community participation in conflict prevention and resolution, in order to support individual and social well-being. This paper presents the main findings of multiagency and professional focus groups exploring restorative approaches and community justice. Observation of experts’ social representation of RJ helped the authors to understand the operation of the justice systems in each country and the attitudes of senior officials towards implementing restorative practices in a way that actively involves the community.The analysis shows the necessity of a cultural change in order to switch from a form of RJ managed by the judicial system to one led by the community. The EU project enabled the research team to theorize a model for promoting a relational and restorative community. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The 'end demand' approach to prostitution has been popping up in Europe through the anti-trafficking debate and receives increasing attention on the international agenda. It is well recognized that improving workers' rights, increasing unionization and collective bargaining coverage are effective strategies for tackling trafficking. However, with regard to sexual exploitation, focus is not on these strategies but instead on the abolition of the entire sex industry with the help of criminal justice systems. In first decade after the Palermo Protocol (2000), international organizations (IGOs) promoted a human rights-based approach to tackling trafficking, aiming to balance the criminal justice focus of the protocol. This work guided states on how to maintain and protect human rights while combating human trafficking. However, the explosive issue of sex work/prostitution was minimized, with IGOs avoiding the topic due to the fragile consensus about the definition of human trafficking and state obligations. Meanwhile, sex workers' collectives and unions globally and throughout Europe developed their own strategies on how to address widespread criminalization, discrimination, violence and exploitation, with no or very limited funding and resources—and without recognition of their work, experience and expertise. This article presents how the European Sex Workers' Rights Alliance (ESWA) and other sex workers' rights civil society organizations have sought to challenge the harmful impacts of the 'end demand' discourse and the criminalization of sex work in the name of anti-trafficking in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the current tendency in the EU to promote a criminal justice model focusing on prevention. In doing so, I examine the EU's internal security agenda with regard to criminal law and assess the extent to which this strategy fits the picture of an European Area of Freedom, Security and Justice placing equal value on freedom, security and justice. I also consider the external dimension to the EU's security program by examining the extent to which the EU benefits from the dual layer of security action provided for in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and the Treaty of the European Union, or whether such double action creates unnecessary complexity. I contrast the current aspirations for more security and prevention in EU criminal law with the Commission's recent communication on the effective implementation of EU policies through criminal law. This communication stresses the importance of ensuring coherence in EU criminal law, while also respecting national diversity and serving the citizens. In addition, I discuss the extent to which the EU's promotion of preventive criminal justice risks turning the EU into a disintegrator instead of an agent of European values (depending on what these values are intended to mean in practice). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Open data promotes transparency and accountability as everyone can analyse it. Law enforcement and the judiciary are increasingly making data available, to increase trust and confidence in the criminal justice system. Due to privacy legislation, judicial open data — like court judgements — in Europe is usually anonymized. And even if the court judgement has been made public, the rest of the case file is usually not published. Therefore, the question arises to what extent criminological research into sentencing can make use of anonymized open data. We answer this question based on a case study in which we use the open data of the Dutch criminal justice system that is available on https://www.rechtspraak.nl/Uitspraken. Over the period 2015–2020, we analysed sentencing in 25,366 court judgements and investigated the relationship between sentence severity and the offender's use of advanced Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The most important results are, firstly, that offenders who use advanced ICT are sentenced to longer custodial sentences compared to other offenders. Secondly, sentencing research with open data is found to be feasible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic DNA Phenotyping (FDP) is a set of techniques that aim to infer externally visible characteristics in humans – such as eye, hair and skin color – and biogeographical ancestry of an unknown person, based on biological material. FDP has been applied in various jurisdictions in a limited number of high-profile cases to provide intelligence for criminal investigations. There are on-going controversies about the reliability and validity of FDP, which come together with debates about the ethical challenges emerging from the use of this technology in the criminal justice system. Our study explores how, in the context of complex politics of legitimation of and contestation over the use of FDP, forensic geneticists in Europe perceive this technology's potential applications, utility and risks. Forensic geneticists perform several forms of discursive boundary work, making distinctions between science and the criminal justice system, experts and non-experts, and good and bad science. Such forms of boundary work reconstruct the complex positioning vis-à-vis legal and scientific realities. In particular, while mobilizing interest in FDP, forensic geneticists simultaneously carve out notions of risk, accountability and scientific conduct that perform distance from FDP' implications in the criminal justice system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editors discusses various reports within the issue on topics including the attrition in Europe, the trends in police recorded offenses from 2000 to 2011, and juvenile criminal justice statistics.

Last year the Europe and world were facing with COVID-19 outbreak that put at the risk lives of the people and capability of healthcare systems to provide their services. To prevent spread of the COVID-19 governments have imposed restrictive measures, while some of them declared state of emergency. The response to the pandemic influenced on the functioning of the criminal justice system and daily operation of courts, but also on the substantive criminal law since some states are applying criminal law to violation of restrictive measures or to criminalizing disinformation on COVID-19 outbreak. Outbreak of COVID-19 revealed new trends in criminal law like accelerated introduction of new crimes during pandemic, extremely flexible interpretation and rapid changes of criminal laws, which tend to be threat for legal stability and human rights protection. In addition, populist governments tend to use that new trend as a tool in suppression of political dissidents. COVID-19 pandemic has posed unprecedent challenges to the functioning of judiciaries. Courts and prosecution services were working with limited capacities to ensure social distancing. Some countries introduced ICT tools and fast-track procedures to organize hearings, which raised question of procedural rights and protection of rights of defendant. In the article authors assessed whether derogation of fair trial rights was in the line with standards of international human rights law and if introduction of state of emergency and restrictions were proportionate, time limited and needed and whether they changed understanding of the fundamental rights protection, especially right to a fair trial. Furthermore, authors explore whether COVID 19 changed perception of criminal law and legal certainty. Authors assessed how restrictions in the organization of judiciary work influenced on human rights protection and citizens trust in judiciary. Consequently, authors assesses whether some of introduces changes, especially use of ICT tools made permanent changes in operation of courts and understanding of access to justice. Finally, authors are assessing whether these changes tend to erode judiciaries or put into the risk access to justice in the EU members states and candidate countries or whether they jeopardized EU principle of mutual trust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offender mental ill health is a major societal challenge. In Europe, there are unacceptably high numbers of people in contact with the criminal justice system who have mental health issues with almost 9 out of 10 prisoners demonstrating signs of at least one mental disorder. This is far higher than the average population level of mental illness and as such represents an area of severe health inequality within the EU. This is attributable to less than optimum levels of organisational and professional integration between mental health (MHS) and criminal justice systems (CJS). In this paper we introduce an EU funded project exploring levels of integration and collaborative practices between the mental health and criminal justice systems in the Norwegian context. This knowledge will contribute to the development of a pedagogical framework to underpin training that prepares professionals in both systems to deliver collaborative practice in the interest of the mental health of the offender population. We focus here specifically on the development of the research framework underpinning this study, borrowing from techniques that guide a narrative synthesis, to combine key theoretical perspectives from innovation, collaboration, integration and competency based education disciplines. The overarching research framework and its operationalization through specific research questions, potential research designs, methods and sampling structure are then presented and future research directions discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Forensic DNA phenotyping raises a range of regulatory, ethical and social issues. • We interviewed thirty civil society stakeholders across nine EU countries to explore their perspectives with relation this. • Views varied about how to balance various risks and benefits in terms of if, when and/or how the technology should be used. • It was not a zero-sum game where risks to some goods detract from others. Each risk/benefit needed balancing against another. Forensic DNA phenotyping (FDP) is an umbrella term for practices seeking to infer likely phenotypic characteristics based on crime scene DNA. Specifically, it is intended to help criminal investigators find an unknown suspected perpetrator by providing information about what the suspected perpetrator may look like based on the analysis of DNA left at the crime scene. While many purport the usefulness of FDP in this regard, its probabilistic nature, as well as its ability to disclose information about an individual that may be considered private raises a range of ethical and social concerns. This paper reports findings from interviews with thirty civil society stakeholders across nine European countries. Our findings reflect the wide variation of views in Europe regarding if, when and/or how the technology should be used in the criminal justice system, and we illustrate this by presenting the different ways in which our participants strike a balance between the potential usefulness of the technology, and the various ethical and social considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the political, social, and public health issues involving the use of cannabis around the world as of June 2019. Topics include the adverse health effects of regular cannabis use like dependence, psychosis, and decreased cognitive function, the positive effects of cannabis legalization in some countries like lower criminality and black market sale, and the effectiveness of cannabinoids in treating specific illnesses.

This study is based on a project aiming at a methodology to collect data on community sanctions and measures (CSM) and on a recent data collection wave by the European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics. The study evaluates the implementation of CSM across Europe and focuses on the integration of these sanctions into the criminal justice system; at the same time, it examines data availability and comparability. Since the types of available sanctions and measures and the underlying penal systems differ significantly between countries, our approach went beyond the national level and looked for a comparative European perspective. We extended the boundaries of the Council of Europe (CoE) Annual Penal Statistics [Statistiques Pénales Annuelles du Conseil de l’Europe; or SPACE II project] and collected data on CSM at three different levels: at the prosecution stage (CSM imposed on an offender as a condition for a conditional disposal), at the sentencing level (CSM ordered by the court), and CSM supervised by probation and similar agencies. By analyzing the major forms of supervision and community service, we found data availability, especially at the level of the court and probation agencies, is quite good, and the importance of CSM in the sentencing policy of countries throughout Europe differs. Despite the diversity of legal concepts, a certain degree of convergence can be observed. Based on this, the potential for better criminal justice statistics revealed by this project can be used for improving the European-wide comparability of information in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the trends in police-recorded crimes in Europe and in individual countries. The offender characteristics such as gender and age of perpetrators are also considered. In addition, the analysis discusses factors behind the changes in the crime trends. Data were collected for the European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics by means of an electronic questionnaire, with the help of national correspondents. The dataset comprises metadata and crime rates (crimes/100,000 population) for 21 offense types. This article focuses on the results from the years 2000-2011. The overview of European crime trends is based on an analysis of the average annual change in homicide, assault, rape, burglary, car theft, robbery, and drug offenses. The trends in different crime categories vary: homicide has decreased in all European countries, and the decrease has been more rapid in those countries with a high homicide rate. However, the development of all violent crime seems contradictory, because assault and rape rates have increased in many countries. Property crimes, such as robbery, burglary and car theft, have decreased, but drug crimes show an increase. Overall, the findings suggest that property is currently better secured now than at the beginning of the century, but the situation in respect of violent crimes (excluding homicide) and drug crimes has not improved. In the future, efforts should be made to collect Europe-wide victimization survey data to supplement and deepen the understanding of the development of crime. In spite of the limitations, for the moment police trends are especially important, because up-to-date European victimization survey figures are not available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article mentions the 25th anniversary celebration of the European Journal for Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, held at the Maastricht University in Maastricht, Netherlands on January 25, 2018 wherein the conference will celebrate with Young Scholar Competition.

This article considers the recent partial privatisation of probation services in England and Wales from the theoretical perspective of legitimacy. Drawing in particular on Beetham's (1991) work, we argue that the question of legitimacy in respect of privatised probation services is a complex one which requires attention to the multiple - and different - perspectives of key stakeholders or constituencies in the probation field. We argue that in the probation context there are five key stakeholder groups: the general public; offenders and victims; ministers and civil servants; sentencers; and probation employees and their representatives. We consider what is known about the perspectives of each of these groups in turn, before concluding that privatised probation services need to be aware of both the legitimacy deficits they face and the complex dynamics likely to be involved in its cultivation with these different constituencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses, from the local professional perspective, access to justice for person-specific interventions to prevent or counter (violent) extremism in Europe. Using a Dutch case study it focusses on legal protection for hand-tailored interferences that are part of a wider-ranging counter-terrorism policy. While the so-called person-specific interventions, carried out by professionals, target designated highrisk individuals and groups, it is primarily the municipal authority that coordinates these criminal -, administrative - or social based measures. Furthermore, although researchers and human rights advocates have repeatedly sounded the alarm over access to justice for those affected, little research has been done into how those responsible for implementation perceive the necessity of legal protection. Also, the potential side-effects such as executive arbitrariness are modestly reflected in the literature. Henceforth, by reviewing policy documents and conducting semi-structured interviews, this exploratory study concludes that as far as legal protection for hand-tailored interferences are concerned, local professionals have faith in the checks and balances of the criminal justice system. Yet from their perspective this was less self-evident in cases of administrative - or social measures. Therefore, one may wonder if legal protections for person-specific interventions that deal with (potential) extremists are sufficient in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent decision of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in Hutchinson v United Kingdom (2015) is the latest twist in the political legal struggle between Westminster and Strasbourg. Whilst the British government has made several successions to the ECtHR regarding the role of the executive in the imprisonment of lifers, the thorny issue of the whole of life tariff, and prospect of prisoner release under that tariff, has been an ongoing debate. Whilst the ECtHR appeared to directly challenge domestic policy in the preceding decision in Vinter and Others v United Kingdom this latest decision, the seeming retreat from Vinter, by the Fourth Section of the court, appears to be more of a response to hard line domestic politics than a continuation of holistic legal principle which the ECtHR has outwardly supported in the past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we propose to analyze the content of the Manifesto on European Criminal Procedure Law of 2013, and how this document can represent a foundation for the legal cooperation of the European states, and also for creating a unique, common space of European criminal justice. Elaborated by the European Criminal Policy Initiative and launched on November 2013, the Manifesto on European Criminal Procedure Law contains the principles and the rules that should be followed by the European penal legislator when gives shape to the laws in the field of Criminal Procedure. This document represents a natural following of the first Manifesto, in the field of substantive criminal law of 2009. The Manifesto concerns mainly the rules and the principles of criminal procedure because, as its authors affirm, this kind of rules have increasingly been shaped lately in European regulations, and also because the regulations in this field must reflect and respect the highest standards of the rule of law, as they must continuously and without exception guarantee the fundamental rights. In this study, we propose to focus upon the legal solutions found out by the authors of the Manifesto in order to attain, during the criminal proceedings, an equilibrium between the interest of the state and even of the Union to realize an effective criminal proceedings, and the individual human rights that are affected, and also an equilibrium between the actual legal order and the traditions of the member states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the developments in the criminal justice system of Europe and their impact on people sentenced to criminal justice sanctions.

The author reflects on the politics of restorative justice (RJ) and its application for crime prevention, addressing conflicts and injustices in intercultural Europe. He discusses topics including critical criminologist and criminal law scholar Louk Hulsman, and his support for penal abolitionism, the developments in RJ and penal mediation in France, and the stagnation of the restorative movement.

Forensic experts play a major role in the legal process as they offer professional expert opinion and evidence within the criminal justice system adjudicating on the innocence or alleged guilt of an accused person. In this respect, medico-legal examination is an essential part of the investigation process, determining in a scientific way the cause(s) and manner of unexpected and/or unnatural death or bringing clinical evidence in case of physical, psychological, or sexual abuse in living people. From a legal perspective, these types of investigation must meet international standards, i.e., it should be independent, effective, and prompt. Ideally, the investigations should be conducted by board-certified experts in forensic medicine, endowed with a solid experience in this field, without any hierarchical relationship with the prosecuting authorities and having access to appropriate facilities in order to provide forensic reports of high quality. In this respect, there is a need for any private or public national or international authority including non-governmental organizations seeking experts qualified in forensic medicine to have at disposal a list of specialists working in accordance with high standards of professional performance within forensic pathology services that have been successfully submitted to an official accreditation/certification process using valid and acceptable criteria. To reach this goal, the National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME) has elaborated an accreditation/certification checklist which should be served as decision-making support to assist inspectors appointed to evaluate applicants. In the same spirit than NAME Accreditation Standards, European Council of Legal Medicine (ECLM) board decided to set up an ad hoc working group with the mission to elaborate an accreditation/certification procedure similar to the NAME's one but taking into account the realities of forensic medicine practices in Europe and restricted to post-mortem investigations. This accreditation process applies to services and not to individual practitioners by emphasizing policies and procedures rather than professional performance. In addition, the standards to be complied with should be considered as the minimum standards needed to get the recognition of performing and reliable forensic pathology service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze the interplay of public and private law enforcement when an infringement affects multiple parties, and where detection by just one party is sufficient to avoid the harm. Detection causes a positive externality on other victims, so that private effort incentives are inefficiently low. The public agency has might reduce its own inspection frequency in order to increase the number of private inspections (Peltzman-effect). However, due to the private parties' incentive compatibility constraints, the agency can only trigger inspection by one more private party compared to the number of inspections when itself inspects with full frequency. Inspecting with full frequency is more likely to be second-best when the number of private parties affected is high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the European agencies for criminal justice and shared law enforcement, including the European Police College (CEPOL), European Asylum Support Office (EASO), and European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE). Topics discussed include agencies' increasing role in the area of freedom, security, and justice (AFSJ), Eurojust, an agency of the European Union (EU) which deals in criminal matters, and the proposed establishment of Eu ropean Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO).