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By 1989, fascism had long been defeated in Europe, and reforms in the Soviet Union appeared to signify the collapse of communist ideology, prompting Francis Fukuyama to famously declare the 'end of history'. Since then, neoliberalism has been rolled out globally. This paper argues that, with regard to higher education, Fukuyama's claim that the pursuit of knowledge will be replaced by the 'satisfaction of sophisticated consumer demands' is prescient. What, then, prompted Fukuyama to qualify his predictions in 2018? Citing both the turmoil of Brexit and the election of Donald Trump, Fukuyama blames identity politics for the breakdown of consensus over what the nation is, or should be, and suggests that the promotion of creedal identity might rescue Western democracy from populism. This paper disagrees: using the examples of Brexit and the promotion of Fundamental British Values in schools, it argues that creedal identity has become another expression of populism. Rejecting the claim that identity politics are the ultimate source of populism, it argues that populism is the predictable outcome of recession in the market economy.

This paper examines the increasingly diverse range of roles played by the corporate sector in shaping education policy. While a growing body of scholarship has documented the deepening embeddedness of the corporate sector within policy-making processes, empirical research on the strategies mobilized by corporate actors remains unsystematised and fragmentary. Furthermore, existing categorizations of corporate policy-influence strategies are frequently restricted to a limited group of Anglo-Saxon countries and, consequently, are ill suited to capturing emerging policy dynamics globally. Building on the results of a literature review, this paper categorises four emerging strategies articulated by the corporate sector: knowledge mobilization, networking, engaging with grassroots, and leading by example. Each strategy is illustrated with examples from a selection of country case studies. These examples suggest that, in the education policy domain, the corporate sector operates not only as a policy influencer, but increasingly as a policy actor organically embedded within policy-making processes and spaces.

Many researchers believe that the modern university is in a state of crisis like never before. One of the main reasons cited for this decline is that the modern university has a closer resemblance to a transnational corporation than to a traditional scholarly institution (Lewis, 2005). This paper attempts to define the term "university" from a classical perspective and to describe the gradual incorporation of vocational pursuits into its scope. Focusing on modern North American university models, it asks whether business schools, in particular, should be operating within academia. An alternative is discussed, which focuses on the vocational attributes of business rather than theoretical knowledge. I draw on secondary sources as well as my own personal experience as a student and researcher to make suggestions on how interdepartmental tension developed and how it can be reduced. The paper finds that the business school does have a place in the modern university; however, the classical representation of the university must be abandoned for it to be fully embraced.

The purposes of this paper were to undertake a comparative analysis of policy shifts in England and the United States of America relating to school type diversification and corporatization, and the implications for educational leader preparation programs. Whilst the school delivery landscape seems to be one of turbulence, over the last four decades there has been a consistent drive in both countries for school-type diversification due to bi-partisan consensus regarding the appropriateness of neoliberal solutions to the problem of raising educational standards. This study involves an intellectual mapping of education provision in England and the United States of America, drawing on a range of primary and secondary data sources, including policy speeches, and for the latter, scholars' interpretations of these. The documents were located initially through keyword searches of databases, archival material and legislation, and subsequently through following up references.

VET (vocational education and training) is a highly complex, multidimensional worldwide phenomenon with diverse structures. Additionally, very different actors define the functions of a national (or even a regional) VET system. The paper contributes to a better understanding of the policy frameworks and current states of such systems. Therefore, we focus on selected VET systems in order to understand their specifics and thus, their market conditions. A qualitative approach is used to answer the research question regarding which conditions create or support market-based opportunities for the provision of commercial vocational training services. We find that the liberalism and deregulation of the VET sectors, as well as the marketisation of VET practices, lead to incentives to internationalise VET offers. Thinking in terms of skills, the kind of education system does not play a role. This is the case in liberal market-driven VET approaches (here, the UK, the USA and Australia) and is mirrored in the micro-analysis categories of "curricula," "learning location," "content," and "learning process."

National university systems have traditionally been characterised by major differences in both internal structures and external conditions. However, the global rise of the knowledge economy has made external conditions of universities more similar across countries. This paper investigates to what extent this convergence has been mirrored "within" the universities by systematically comparing staff changes over more than a decade in five countries: The United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, and Denmark. Measures of staff changes are partial but tangible indicators, which are reasonably comparable across countries and over time. The empirical analysis isolates and examines two parallel staff trends, which the higher education literature currently highlights as crucial for ongoing university transformations: Proliferation of temporary academic staff and professionalisation of administrative/managerial staff. In doing so, the analysis provides a tangible empirical basis for assessing the impact of global trends on historically distinct university systems. Staff compositions have changed in the same direction, but from different starting points and with different intensity. Staff changes have been larger in Europe than in the US, but not in ways erasing major historical differences. The directional similarity rather suggests that dissimilar universities have added a similar layer of certain types of human resources.

This paper examines the future of Western higher education. Situated midway between an analysis and a polemic, it concerns itself with how we might begin to actively design the universities of the future. That will require a productionist account of higher education which is so far sadly lacking. But there are signs that such an account might be possible if we could at least begin to remove the blinkers provided by the tired old narratives of what universities are like.

This commentary suggests that a countermovement for educational and social justice must learn from the dominant global neo-liberal movement and its successes in creating institutions and knowledge-making processes and networks. Local struggles for educational justice are important, but they need to be linked to a broader educational justice movement. Such a movement itself has to be seen as part of a struggle for genuine democracy.

Various institutions such as universities and corporations strive to commercialize technologies produced through R&D investment. The ideal way to commercialize technology is to transfer it, recognizing the value of the developed technology. Technology transfer is the transfer of technology from R&D entities, such as universities, research institutes, and companies, to others, with the advantage of spreading research results and maximizing cost efficiency. In other words, if enough technology is transferred, it can be commercialized. Although many institutions have various support measures to assist in transferring technology, there is no substitution for quantitative, objective methods. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a technology transfer prediction model based on the information found in patents. However, it is not realistic to include the information from all patents in the quantitative, objective method, so patterns related to technology transfer must be identified to select the appropriate patents that can be used in the predictive model. In addition, a method is needed to address the insufficient training data for the model. Training data are limited because some technology transfer information is not disclosed, and there is little technology transferred in new technology fields. The technology transfer prediction model proposed in this paper searches for hidden patterns related to technology transfer by imaging the patent information, which can also be applied to image analysis models. Furthermore, augmenting the data can solve the problem of the lack of learning data for technology transfer. To examine whether the proposed model can be used in real industries, we collected patents related to artificial intelligence technology registered in the United States and conducted experiments. The experimental results show that the models trained by imaging patent information performed excellently. Moreover, it was shown that the data augmentation technique can be used when there are insufficient data for technology transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on sixty-one in-depth interviews conducted with commercial and noncommercial scientists at four universities in the United States, this paper examines why academic scientists embrace commercially oriented career paths in higher education. A central goal of this paper is to expand our descriptive and conceptual understanding of socialization in the academic profession by examining the explanatory power of differential association theory. Differential association theory emphasizes how patterns of behavior are learned through a process of interaction with different types of individuals with varying ideas about the acceptability of a particular course of action. The results demonstrate that socialization to commercialism is an interactive learning process in which scientists learn definitions that are favorable to commercial career trajectories. Such learning is often necessary because prior socialization can either lead to unfavorable views of commercialization or shelter doctoral students from techniques of and rationales for commercialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hip-hop has evolved from a social and musical niche to a mass phenomenon and a key element of American pop culture with a global reach. Meanwhile, rap music and hip-hop culture are also a commercial success story in which the materialistic American Dream has once again come true. How did this former ghetto phenomenon become today's marketplace icon, whose once marginalized performers are now pampered by luxury brands and work as successful businesspeople and investors? Drawing on previous research on youth and subcultures and introducing the concept of "mainstream subculture," this paper outlines the development and commercialization of American hip-hop culture over four decades from 1979 to 2019. Ongoing discussions about the preservation of urban authenticity and concerns about a (sub-)culture "selling out" are also taken into account. The article concludes with a prognosis for the future of hip-hop culture and the industry in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

US universities are leading the way in technology commercialization, while universities in Russia lag far behind. This paper discusses the best American practices, as well as the main issues of technology commercialization at the US universities. As an example, we consider the experience of the University of Maryland, College Park. In the next section, we turn to technology commercialization in Russia, where it struggles for several reasons. In this paper, we propose that Russia can improve its technology commercialization by studying the example of the leading US entrepreneurial universities and implementing proper procedures. And the important overarching point is that Russian universities need to improve their collaboration with industry, and they need to develop new standards of administrative, research, and business activity that will promote innovation and entrepreneurship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years universities have been taken by a new wave of entrepreneurial activities. Originally universities engaged with entrepreneurship mostly in terms of commercializing innovations based on research in the sciences. The new initiatives are instead focused on students and recent alumni, and encompass a much wider set of entrepreneurial initiatives, including student work spaces, accelerators programmes, or industry partnerships. This paper examines these emergent entrepreneurial activities in and around universities, and then asks what the role of government policy is. It argues that any policy approach will have to understand the multi-faceted nature of these new initiatives, and be sensitive to the porous nature of the boundaries between university and private-sector activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercialization and corporatization (C&C) arguably contribute to the strain in the academic roles of professors in research, teaching, and service, and in their political roles asorganic, professional, and critical intellectuals, both in the United States and greater China. Although they may manifest themselves in different shapes and forms, these global trends have been going strong and areadverselyaffecting professors’ role playing, and in essence, their academic freedom, at different degrees in different places. The paper is informed by theoretical perspectives of the sociology of higher education, and its argument is supported by both quantitative and qualitative data. Higher education is not only an important engine of the economy, but also an important driver of social and political change. How well professors can play their roles will directly influence where a society is heading; hence, the importance of this topic and what this paper may contribute to the understanding and solution of the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines how the concept of public values can be operationalized in an ongoing public initiative to stimulate innovation in an emerging technology. Our study focuses on Innovation Corps (I-Corps)-a program initiated in 2011 by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to accelerate the process of commercializing science-driven discoveries. The I-Corps method has since spread rapidly across multiple US agencies. Separately, there has also been heightened attention to the early anticipation and mitigation of the implications of emerging science and technology. Drawing on the case of nanotechnology, the paper considers how public values related to nanotechnology commercialization can be integrated alongside the fast start-up procedures embedded in I-Corps. We use a public values framework to pose societal impact questions that can be probed in parallel with the current I-Corps process, highlighting values such as identification of societal problems that the technology might potentially address; types of potential customers likely to be overlooked; groups who might oppose the application as well as those who might support it; and potential environmental, health, and safety risks. The paper discusses the challenges of adding specifications related to equity as well as safety in efforts to foster rapid commercialization and considers how these can be integrated within the I-Corps approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, universities have seen an increasing amount of activity in entrepreneurship and commercialization, not only for students, but for faculty as well. Traditionally, these initiatives have been separate, such that programs and curriculum have been focused on supporting just students or just faculty. In 2012, the National Science Foundation (NSF) launched the NSF I-Corps™ program, an innovative funding program that not only offered principle investigators (PIs) funding, but also exposed PIs to an innovation/entrepreneurship curriculum as well. The University of Michigan (U-M) was one of the first two NSF I-Corps™ Nodes funded in 2012 and has leveraged the program to catalyze the entrepreneurial ecosystem. This paper describes the growth of this entrepreneurial ecosystem since 1983, the call of entrepreneurship in the U-M College of Engineering and describes the role the U-M NSF I-Corps™ program has played across the university. The paper concludes with lessons learned and recommendations to administrators and policy makers considering more active promotion of academic entrepreneurship and commercialization in universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foreign-born academic scientists have been consistently shown to be more productive than the native-born in the United States with regard to research and patents. However, no study has yet analyzed whether the foreign-born are also more likely to commercialize their research after having it patented. This paper utilizes a 2010 survey of academic inventors to analyze whether a selected patent had been licensed or whether technology transfer offices were currently working with a company. Additional analysis was conducted to understand where patents were held (whether by a private company, spinoff, government, or university) for those patents that had been successfully licensed in the past. Findings show that the foreign-born are generally less likely to have their patents licensed or to be working with technology transfer offices, though the significance of the results are mixed. In addition, the foreign-born are more likely to have their licenses held by private companies, while the native-born are more likely to work with spinoffs. These results indicate that technology transfer offices can better serve a key part of the academic workforce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the trajectories of the development and institutionalization of technology transfer structures and activities in Israel and Japan, two countries with strong science and technology sectors, from the 1950s to the present. We examine the local arrangements that existed before the introduction of the U.S. model in the 1980s and 90s, and how the Japanese and Israeli schemes of technology transfer evolved under the combination of local practices and U.S. influence. Drawing on new institutional theory's concept of loose coupling, we identify different types of loose coupling between formal structures and practices in Israeli and Japanese fields of technology transfer before and after the introduction of U.S. model. Our analysis show that the new configurations in the two countries are best analyzed by looking at two factors: (1) The perceived efficacy of the local, previous technology transfer arrangements, and; (2) the gap between the local arrangement and the U.S. technology transfer model. In the Israeli case, the former technology transfer model was similar to the one in the U.S.—however, it was perceived as potentially ineffective and thus disputable. In the Japanese case, the former technology transfer model was seen as effective and largely uncontested. The introduction of the U.S. formal model with the university ownership of patents disrupted the informal technology transfer mechanisms in Japan. These historical trajectories explain why, on one hand, Israeli science community was quick to adopt to the U.S. model but contested its efficacy and legitimacy, and on the other hand, the Japanese science community modified the U.S. model through negotiating conditions that were as favorable to firms than universities as their previous mode of technology transfer. Through these cases, we show how loose coupling in each field developed and changed in response to global and local policies. We argue that attention to the local dynamics of loose coupling can help explain local variations in the global diffusion of the American style of technology transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the propensity for patents by individual inventors to be commercialized. By exploiting a peculiarity of the US patent system, concerning the different patent renewal fees paid in order to obtain small or large entity status, we are able to distinguish patents that become part of a large corporation's patent portfolio. Using an extensive dataset of US patents, for both domestic and foreign individual inventors, we find that patent characteristics, size of research teams, prior patenting experience and past corporate patenting activity are positively associated with an increased likelihood of transferring patent rights to large corporations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article offers a critical analysis of the mediation and commercialization of “bum fighting” (videotaping two or more poverty stricken individuals engaged in low-dollar bloodsport). In recent years, the production of pugilism has emerged in the US as popular—and indeed highly lucrative—features of the media-sport landscape. This paper looks into what we can learn from these 1) deeply corporeal mediations and 2) radically political public pedagogies. Regarding the corporeal dimension, we deconstruct the ways in which bodies—and particularly bodies of the street—are framed within these popular discursive formations. We also explore the ways in which these media representations valorize, and are articulated within, broader political mediations on the underprivileged and “living welfarism”—which largely portray individuals living with homelessness as social welfare “parasites,” drug addicts, or nuisances to a nation's economic growth. We consider how these popular media constructs locate certain bodies as abject and thereby disposable. We conclude by discussing what these public pedagogies tell us not only about public space but most importantly about bodies that inhabit them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Renewable jet fuel (RJF) production has been recognized as a promising approach for reducing the aviation sector's carbon footprint. Over the last decade, the commercial production of RJF has piqued the interest of airlines and governments around the world. However, RJF production can be challenging due to its dispersed supply resources. Furthermore, the production of RJF is more costly compared to producing conventional jet fuel. In this study, using a mixed integer linear programming (MILP), we design a corn-stover-based RJF supply chain network in which we obtain an optimized configuration of the supply chain and determine operational decisions required to meet RJF demand at airports. To accelerate the commercialization of RJF production, we examined four incentive programs designed to cover the supply chain's costs, with agricultural statistics districts serving as the designated supply regions. This study is validated by employing the model to design the supply chain in the Midwestern United States. The results from this study are promising as they show the supply chain can achieve commercialization with partial financial coverage from the incentive programs. Based on the findings of this study, policymakers can devise policies to commercialize RJF production and accelerate its adoption by the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have found that commercialized nonprofits may be less likely to offer free access to programs and services. This study draws on theoretical insights from the literature on nonprofit efficiency, the principal-agent problem, and nonprofit professionalism, going a step further to examine when commercialization leads to the exclusion of those unable to pay. Studying performing arts nonprofits in the United States from 2008 to 2016, the results suggest that the observed negative effects of commercialization on free access are not due to commercialized nonprofit leaders leaning towards efficiency through a cost-benefit mentality or pursuing their interests, but due partially to commercialized nonprofits moving toward professionalism. The findings have important implications for nonprofit professionalization, co-creation, and revenue portfolio management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the second half of the twentieth century, the volume, content and appearance of arts journalism in Western daily newspapers have changed significantly in accordance with wider transformations in the arts and journalism. Previous studies have focused on (1) which culture receives attention, (2) the way culture gets attention, and (3) economic pressures underlying transformations. In this article we aim to bring these strands together by analyzing how changes in the packaging of arts journalism have evolved in relation to the cultural content which is discussed and the volume of (cultural) advertising that is featured in newspapers. We conduct a content analysis of the coverage given to both “highbrow” and “popular” art forms in French, German, Dutch and US elite newspapers for four sample years: 1955, 1975, 1995 and 2005. The results show that newspapers all seem to converge into a balance between news reporting and reviewing. We find evidence for an increased catering for the needs and interests of audiences in some aspects (e.g. more popular culture) but not in others (e.g. no more human interest). Finally, most newspapers show an increase in cultural advertising, although the European newspapers in our sample contain much less advertising than the American ones. A stronger presence of advertising is positively related to both a lifestyle orientation of newspapers and a focus on popular culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to unsettle the taken-for-granted epistemological and ontological foundations upon which many curricular and research-based activities in contemporary sport management are grounded. With an emphasis on that academic field's development in the United States in particular, the author problematizes the underlying assumptions that guide many of sport management's concomitant scientific and industrial projects. The article concludes with a brief discussion on how we might reenvisage both the study and praxis of sport management in ways that are not just economically generative, but in ways that might also bring about cultural and social transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The US has recently—and belatedly—come to recognize opioid addiction as a public health crisis. What has gone mostly unrecognized is the degree to which this crisis is intertwined with US intellectual property law and related elements of US innovation policy. Innovation institutions—the legal arrangements that structure incentives for production and allocation of knowledge goods—encouraged the development and commercialization of addictive painkillers, restricted access to opioid antidotes, and (perhaps most importantly) failed to facilitate investments in alternative, nonaddictive treatments for chronic pain. Although innovation policy does not bear all the blame for the opioid wave that has washed over communities across the country, innovation institutions are bound up in the ongoing epidemic to a degree that so far has gone underappreciated. This article examines the proliferation of opioid use and abuse through the lens of innovation policy, and it envisions ways in which innovation institutions could help to contain the crisis. Along the way, it seeks to derive broader lessons for innovation policy scholarship as well as recommendations for institutional reform. The opioid crisis challenges the conventional understanding of IP law as a trade-off between allocative efficiency and dynamic efficiency; it highlights the potentially pernicious role of IP protection for addictive and habit-forming products; and it exposes deep flaws in the structure of federal subsidies for and regulation of prescription drugs. It also draws attention to the political and cultural factors that contribute to innovation policy failures. Ultimately, the opioid crisis underscores both the urgency and the limits of institutional change in the innovation policy domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The revised Renewable Fuel Standard's cellulosic biofuels mandate requires the USA to consume 16 000 million gallons of cellulosic biofuel per year by 2022. The cellulosic biofuels industry has fallen far short of reaching the production targets needed to achieve this volume, and it has even struggled to achieve the greatly reduced revised volumes that were created by the US Environmental Protection Agency despite the subsequent inclusion of landfill gas within the mandate. This article examines the underlying causes of this shortfall from the perspectives of markets and policy. It examines how the cellulosic biofuels production environment has not been conducive to the cost‐competitiveness of pioneer, first‐of‐their‐kind facilities and pathway buildout, and how recent techno‐economic analyses have used uncertainty to quantify the impacts of this environment. It further examines how the cellulosic biofuels mandate has actually hindered commercialization despite being intended to support it. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, we present genetically modified (GM) horticultural events that have passed the regulatory process and have been approved for cultivation or food use in different countries. The first authorization or deregulation of a GM horticultural plant issued 25 years ago initiated a fast expansion of GM organisms (GMO) engineered by using gene transfer technology. The list of GM horticultural species comprises representatives of vegetables, fruit plants and ornamentals. We describe their unique characteristics, often not achievable by conventional breeding, and how they were developed, and the approval process. Information on the adoption of GM horticultural cultivars and sale is accessed if commercialization has occurred. The review comprises, among others, Flavr SavrTM and other tomato cultivars with delayed ripening and improved shelf-life, insect-resistant eggplant (or brinjal), as well as virus-resistant squash, melon and the common bean, and also fruit trees, plum and papaya. Cultivation of the latter was particularly valuable to farmers in Hawaii as it ensured restoration of papaya production devastated earlier by the Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV). In contrast, a plum resistant to sharka (Plum pox virus; PPV) deregulated in the USA is still awaiting commercialization. GM events with improved quality include the recently marketed non-browning apple and high-lycopene pineapple. We also present orange petunia, blue 'Applause' rose and Moon-series carnations with a modified purple and violet flower colour. Finally, we discuss prospects of GM horticultural plants, including their development using promising new breeding technologies relying on genome editing and considered as an alternative to the transgenic approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article follows the evolution of biopharmaceutical firms as they bore great uncertainty and risks in their endeavours to commercialise new therapies – through the regenerative medicine industry in the United States, Britain and Japan. Despite its beginnings in the 1970s, regenerative medicines have yet to become a widely accepted form of medicine. A large part of the problem lay with the lack of 'fit' with the broader health context. This article illustrates how the trajectory of the sector was shaped, not only by the nature of the technology, but also by the complex contexts in which firms were embedded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on weather forecasts provided outside of scientific institutions in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th century. The author examines the policing of counterfeit weather forecasts, explores the relationship between weather forecasting and advertising, and discusses how the commercialization of weather forecasts presented a problem for the U.S. government.

The article investigates the layers of significance attached to the word "heritage" as staff and leadership at the Nordic Heritage Museum in Seattle, Washington. Topics discussed include ways in which heritage institutions that feature historic houses are affected by processes of commercialization; and museums located in the U.S. featuring Swedish and Nordic heritage the Nordic Heritage Museum (NHM) in Seattle, and the American Swedish Institute (ASI) in Minneapolis.

After the Sputnik shock of 1957, the United States initiated education reform, based in part on the hope that technology could facilitate efficient school learning. This development was largely driven by the confrontation between the eastern and western Blocs: on both sides of the Iron Curtain, reformists promoted educational technology for the purpose of better instruction so as to improve the performance capacity of their own societies. The first section of the article focuses on this circulation of knowledge, after which the second section, drawing on the example of Germany, argues that, due to the constellation of interests in the 1960s, substantial organisational and financial resources could be mobilised to promote educational technology. However, when support from political and pedagogical circles dwindled in the 1970s, it became detached from its previous objectives, but was pragmatically advanced in the private sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research joint ventures (RJVs) are projects that combine the research resources of different firms. A sample of RJVs supported by the U.S. Advanced Technology Program shows that the projects yield revenues that are far less than costs. Related to this point, the RJVs are subject to commercialization delays, loss of intellectual property, and product market competition. Partner firms undertake joint research, but if they commercialize at all, they do so separately, to avoid splitting of revenues from new products. Ultimately, difficulties with the RJVs occur because frequently, firms are potential competitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bayh-Dole Act, which encourages patents on federally funded inventions, has been criticized for forcing consumers to 'pay twice' for patented products-first through the tax system and again when the patentee charges a supracompetitive price. Supporters counter that patents promote commercialization, but it is doubtful that this benefit can justify the Act's present scope. One important feature of Bayh-Dole, however, has been overlooked in this debate-a feature that arises from the global-public-good nature of knowledge. Without patents on US taxpayer-funded inventions, theUnited States would have no practical way of internalizing the positive externalities these inventions confer on consumers in other countries. Put differently, the charge that Bayh-Dole forces US consumers to 'pay twice' misses the point that eliminating some Bayh-Dole patents would permit non-U.S. consumers to avoid paying at all. To be sure, this 'internalization theory' was not the rationale upon which sponsors of the Act relied. And like commercialization theory, it cannot justify the Act's present scope. Rather than relying on internalization theory to defend Bayh-Dole, we highlight ways in which this novel theory can inform Bayh-Dole debates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a potential amendment to the U.S. Bayh-Dole Act patent law that is designed to incentivize and enable American universities to review their portfolios of unlicensed technology patents, and it mentions Stalled Patents which, after five years, have not been licensed to private industry. It states that the Bayh-Dole Act is an unfunded mandate that requires universities to commercialize technology without providing funds.

Research summary: Firms introducing disruptive innovations into multisided ecosystems confront the disruptor's dilemma: gaining the support of the very incumbents they disrupt. Through a longitudinal study of TiVo, a company that pioneered the Digital Video Recorder, we examine how these firms may address this dilemma. Our analysis reveals how TiVo navigated coopetitive tensions by continually adjusting its strategy, its technology platform, and its relational positioning within the evolving U.S. television industry ecosystem. We theorize how (1) disruption may affect not just specific incumbents, but also the entire ecosystem; (2) coopetition is not just dyadic, but also multilateral and intertemporal, and (3) strategy is both a deliberative and emergent process involving continual adjustments, as the disruptor attempts to balance coopetitive tensions over time. Managerial summary: New entrants confront a dilemma when they introduce a disruptive innovation into an existing business ecosystem, viz., how can they gain the support of the incumbents that their innovation disrupts? Confronting this 'disruptor's dilemma', the disruptor must consider several issues: How might it pitch its innovation to attract end customers and yet reduce the threat of disruption perceived by ecosystem incumbents? How can the innovation be modified to fit into legacy systems while transforming them? Based on an in-depth analysis of TiVo and its entrepreneurial journey, we explore the strategies disruptors can deploy to address these issues. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A gap exists between the expanding space of technological innovations to aid those affected by autism spectrum disorders, and the actual impact of those technologies on daily lives. This gap can be addressed through a very practical path of commercialization. However, the path from a technological innovation to a commercially viable product is fraught with challenges. These challenges can be mitigated through small business funding agencies, which are, more and more, catalyzing the dissemination of innovation by fostering social entrepreneurship through capital support and venture philanthropy. This letter describes the differences and nature of these agencies, and their importance in facilitating the translational and real-world impact of technological and scientific discoveries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansive patent portfolios may be used by firms to fence off technological space for commercialization, impede the commercialization efforts of competitors, and enhance bargaining power in cross-licensing negotiations. Low quality patents with claims that overlap those of other patents contribute to these portfolios and patent strategies. By failing to disclose known relevant prior art during the patenting process, inventors and their firms may be granted low quality patents with intellectual property claims which would not otherwise have been granted. We find that the failure of inventors to disclose known relevant prior art increases as they gain experience with the patenting process. Such failure is also greater among inventors employed by relatively small, poorly performing firms that rely on outsourced legal counsel during the application process. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neoliberalism is the political ideology behind efforts to commercialize university science. The development of genetically engineered ( GE) crops has facilitated the commercialization process because GE crops generally have more restrictive intellectual property protections than conventional crops. Those restrictions have led some to question whether long-term university research and innovations are being compromised to protect short-term intellectual property interests. This concern is evident in two letters submitted by public-sector entomologists in February 2009 to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA). The letters asserted that scientists are prohibited from conducting fully independent research on the efficacy and environmental impact of GE crops. In response to the letter, the American Seed Trade Association ( ASTA) negotiated an agreement between university scientists and seed companies to protect industry property rights while enabling university scientists to conduct research with more independence. Through a survey of public- and private-sector entomologists who are members of two regional entomologist research groups, we document scientists' perspectives on the adequacy of the ASTA agreement and whether those scientists have experienced limitations on their research projects involving efficacy and environmental impacts. Our findings show that limitations exist and that certain forms of public knowledge about crops are likely being compromised. These findings have implications for the legitimacy of current risk management institutions, as well as for future technological breakthroughs and innovations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I investigate whether licensing agreements are an appropriate tool for firms to resolve blocking and hold-up problems in high-tech industries. I use a novel and comprehensive database on licensing agreements as well as detailed firm-level information on revenues and patents in the semiconductor industry from 1989 to 1999. It would be interesting to evaluate the post-1999 time period, but data constraints prevent me from doing so. I estimate a bivariate probit model accounting for endogenous selection. I find that different types of licensing agreements, that is, ex ante and ex post licensing agreements, help firms eventually resolve realized blocking. Firms engage in licensing before inventing a new technology (ex ante licensing) if they believe competitors hold patents that can potentially block the commercialization of their technology. In contrast, firms engage in licensing after inventing the technology (ex post licensing) if other firms hold patents that block the commercialization of the technology. The estimation results also show that firms' activity in technology and product markets plays an important role in explaining choices between ex ante and ex post licensing agreements. It should be kept in mind that the semiconductor industry is high paced and the data patterns might have changed after 1999. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at the framework underlying proposals for intellectual property (IP)-based commercialization incentives in the U.S. Topics discussed include role of patents in promoting invention and commercialization; patents for commercial innovations; and externalities, transaction costs, and information asymmetries related to commercialization incentives in the country.

How do contracts deal with the exchange of tacit knowledge, which is difficult to observe, enforce, and verify? This study compares the sample characteristics of 505 license agreements between inventors and developers of biomedical inventions with theoretical prescriptions about contractual terms when the parties' tacit knowledge is required to commercialize the inventions. The analysis reveals that (a) three- and four-part payments are common in licenses of biomedical inventions; (b) the importance of inventors' tacit knowledge in development activities is directly related to the magnitude of royalty rates in the licenses; and (c) the importance of developers' tacit knowledge in development is associated with minimum annual payments when the license includes measurable benchmarks to address the shelving of inventions, and to upfront payments in the absence of such benchmarks. Firms use a complex mix of upfront and state-contingent payments, broadly consistent with theoretical prescriptions, to cope with the incentive issues inherent in the exchange of tacit knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article the author considers the benefits and disadvantages of privatization and commercialization of universities and colleges in the U.S., and presents changes that can assist in the struggle of higher education institutions to resist the aftermaths of privatization. Topics discussed include the difference with the privatization of K-12 public schools, the changes in the conception of knowledge in relation to economic utility, and the rise of distance education.