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Frederick Douglass' 1852 address "What to the Slave is the Fourth of July" poignantly called attention to the Black people who were still unfree slaves when the Republic joyfully celebrated freedom and independence on its 76th anniversary. Echoing Douglass, this paper searches for the meaning of the 250th anniversary in a deeply fractured and divided America by focusing on the historical and current 'color scheme.' An in-depth examination of America's history and cultural history, represented by the paradigms White, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Browner opens space for analysis and arguments on the formation of national character, the cultivation of cultural identity, and the definition of Americanism. This essay tackles the core of Whiteness in relation to Blackness (African Americans), Brownness (Native Americans), and Yellowness (Chinese/Asian Americans) to unpack a heated and culturally charged topic of race relations and capture the significance of the 'Browner' in 'Browner America' in anticipation of the 250th anniversary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black people in America have often been labeled outlaws, deviants, and nonconformists who are disinterested in complying with the laid down rules. However, from a long range experience dating back to slavery, they recognize that rules in the American context whether the Slave Codes, Black Codes, Jim Crows, or the contemporary law, are machinations of the legal system to perpetuate oppression and violence against Blackness. Toward self-preservation, they have learned to radically resist acts of oppression such as wrongful arrests by the police and the functional denial of their rights to be presumed innocent, protest and bear arms, even if such resistance necessitates a stark disobedience to the law enforcement. The Stono Rebellion of 1739 and other slave uprisings used resistance to achieve the abolition of chattel slavery. In the contemporary times, the Black radical tradition pursues the eradication of criminal enslavement by promoting Black protests and resistance against wrongful arrests: wrongful arrests have been identified as the preliminary steps toward mass Black incarceration. In opposition to the mainstream perspective in American literature, this paper uses a functional-analytical approach to legal reasoning to analyze key legal, historical, and sociological issues surrounding the existence of Black people in America in order to show that slavery is still functionally alive: it argues positively for the legitimacy and appropriateness of the Black radical tradition as a reliable means of effectuating the myriad black-letter rights that started in 1865 under the Thirteenth Amendment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper builds on the discourse in some of my previous research surrounding destabilizing whiteness—which is both a distinctiveness and a configuration together with who a white person is and the system of power that benefits white people and disadvantages Black people. In the intersection of Black male emasculation and sexuality, I focus on the sustained interaction of these two concepts with contemporary racial identity politics, masculinity, and media representation. I also reflect on categorization and institutionalization of Black men in visual culture. I discuss how power plays of hegemonic U.S. culture are structured and regulated by means of social dynamics. I ultimately provide insights into these things by investigating them and looking closely at their social constructs. I also focus on the social critique of power and marginality in terms of U.S. Black male culture. This manuscript is Part 2 in a series of two articles to show that a primary reason as to why DL and Black gay men and Black people are hated and feared is due to the ways in which we are negatively presented in television and media. These two manuscripts are companion pieces which feed off and rhythmically flow into each other to show a cohesive union. This manuscript sets the background out of concern and fear for the lives of DL, Black, and Black gay men in America in the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

America recently celebrated the 75th anniversary of the desegregation of the military, and while some might boast that the Black population within the military (around 17%) is more representative than the Black population in America (around 12%), there is still more that should be done to promote equity in armed service in the USA. Of course, such representation is positive, but it does not tell the whole story of how well Black service members are surviving and thriving. This paper will link manifestations of thriving and surviving over time to present-day recruiting shortfalls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United States Preventive Services Task Force is perhaps America's best-known source of evidence-based medicine (EBM) recommendations. This paper reviews aspects of the history of one such recommendation—screening for colorectal cancer (CRC)—to explore how the Task Force evaluates the best available evidence to reach its conclusions. Although the Task Force initially believed there was inadequate evidence to recommend CRC screening in the 1980s, it later changed its mind. Indeed, by 2002, it was recommending screening colonoscopy for those aged 50 and older, "extrapolating" from the existing evidence as there were no randomized controlled trials of the procedure. By 2016, due in part to the use of an emerging analytic modality known as modeling, the Task Force supported four additional CRC screening tests that lacked randomized data. Among the reasons the Task Force gave for these decisions was the desire to improve adherence for a strategy—screening healthy, asymptomatic individuals—that it believed saved lives. During these same years, the Task Force diverged from other organizations by declining to advocate screening otherwise healthy Black patients earlier than age 50—despite the fact that such individuals had higher rates of CRC than the general population, higher mortality from the disease and earlier onset of the disease. In declining to extrapolate in this instance, the Task Force underscored the lack of reliable data that proved that the benefits of such testing would outweigh the harms. The history of CRC screening reminds us that scientific evaluation relies not only on methodological sophistication but also on a combination of intellectual, cognitive and social processes. General internists—and their patients—should realize that EBM recommendations are often not definitive but rather thoughtful data-based advice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marijuana policy has been a crucial debate for many years in America. Even with the legalization of marijuana in many states, Black people are still being arrested at an unjustified rate in contrast to white people. These differences have led to the overrepresentation of Black people incarcerated for this low-level crime as a direct result of the aftermath of the War on Drugs. This paper will analyze the effects of the overcriminalization of marijuana, more specifically among Black people. It will question the extent of marijuana policy on the outcomes of Black people versus white people and will discuss what steps can be taken to mend the marijuana policies in place to express more equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors deploy Marxist theory—and Gramscian hegemonic theory in particular—to investigate the subtleties of racial "othering" in the media representations of African Americans in a putatively postracial America. The paper's objects of inquiry are an opinion article in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution and the reaction it instigated in the Atlanta Black Star. We argue that the contestations of signification between the dominant narrative about African Americans in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution and the rhetorical pushback it actuated in the alternative Atlanta Black Star both reproduce and legitimate dominant media framing by highlighting the alterity of subordinate ethnic groups and providing a site for contestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been a wide array of scholarship that has investigated the effects of social media use on psychological well-being since 2006, with most focusing on general populations, specific populations of non-Black individuals, or specific use patterns such as passive use, active use, and addictive use. Comparatively, the extant literature focusing on Black populations is sparse. In this scoping review, we collected 38 articles that studied social media experience and psychological well-being by Black social media users in America. We found recurring research themes that focused on the Performance of Signifyin,' cyberbullying victimization, racial stereotyping and discrimination, along with more common well-being measures, including self-esteem, social support, depression, stress, anxiety, and negative affect. The findings of this research suggest nuanced dynamics of Black social media experience, potentially due to the unique overlapping influences of social practices and exposure to traumatizing content that Black users encounter on social media. Because our examination of articles was limited to populations of Black users in the United States, we note that our findings may not be extendable to Black social media users who reside in other parts of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores prospects for the formation of black community frameworks and consciousness that draw deeply and organically from black struggles and strivings and from principles and practices authentic to their experiences and hopes. While this emphasizes the importance of local contextualization, forming black community and consciousness across trans-local geographies requires deep engagement across the diversities and differences that distance black communities from one another. Cross-cultural immersive and reflexive methodologies are proving beneficial in this regard, and this article examines examples of such approaches within faith-related, academically centered formation. The immersive and reflexive approaches discussed here draw inspiration in part from educational theorists, including Paulo Freire and bell hooks, who emphasize the “conscientization” of both teacher and student as the goal of the learning process, and pedagogies that proceed from points of deep immersion and engagement with the context being served and that accord value and agency to the knowledge resident within those contexts. The significance of Africa to America’s racialized historical constructions (and to African American and Pan-Africanist identities) will be shown as informing a distinctive emphasis among segments of African Americans on connecting to Africa, including through immersive-reflexive models of cross-cultural engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histories of 19th-century U.S. education center White experiences, while formal education policy and practice pertaining to Black and Native Americans are treated as marginal phenomena that had little impact on schooling at a national level. Furthermore, current historical framings overwhelmingly analyze Native, White, and Black American education as separate entities, which conceals the political economic character of race as a relational phenomenon. To explore connections between race, school, and nation building, this review presents a relational analysis of scholarship on Native, White, and Black American education through the 19th century. In doing so, it outlines how formal U.S. education expressed, created, and adjusted racial hierarchies through the 19th century; and more importantly, it highlights how America's education system developed in a context where Native, White, and Black American experiences were deeply interrelated. The review ends by identifying paths for new research on the racial dimensions of U.S. education during its foundational years and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the ways in which class and space inform the varied experiences of Black people is essential to a more complete understanding of the African reality. Situating these constructs within the context of the Black Intellectual Tradition sheds light on the history of scholars who, for decades, have encouraged this analysis. Starting with Du Bois, this study pays homage to and continues the work of analyzing race and class in Black spaces. Relying on thirty-four in-depth interviews, this research highlights the racialized and classed experiences of Black Atlantans. Drawing on the theoretical frames of Black placemaking, a premise that is encouraged in the Black Intellectual Tradition, I explain how, even in a Black mecca like Atlanta, certain class groups are left out of the educational opportunities and social privileges afforded to whites and economically advantaged Blacks. I use the term Black meccanisms to elucidate the way city institutions act as agents to help Atlanta maintain its Black mecca status, while simultaneously reinforcing class inequality. Community-engaged research empowers people to suggest and create solutions to the social problems they encounter. Therefore, my research gives voice to solutions participants agree would help undermine the effects of structural inequality – improved and diverse educational institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

George Floyd's murder by a Minnesota police officer sparked outrage, protests, and a re-evaluation of racial inequities in America. Within criminology, we argue, that re-evaluation should include the Latino Paradox, the idea that Latino communities are an exception—a paradox—in that, while they face economic deprivation, they also possess a magical something that makes them resistant to social problems like crime. Unfortunately, this compels the more delicate question; what is the deficiency in Black communities that makes them so vulnerable to crime? However, as we argue here, the Latino Paradox forces a false comparison. Its assumptions with respect to crime are factually incorrect, it demeans Blacks by neglecting their historical context, it romanticizes the Latino experience, and it misdirects policy making. It also leads to lazy theorizing by suggesting that the Latino Paradox forces a re-evaluation of a major criminology theory, Social Disorganization. Indeed, Social Disorganization Theory can adequately explain past and present links between immigration and crime. In light of these problems, it is time to drop the Latino Paradox as an explanation for the race/ethnic differences in crime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"The Mark of Slavery: Disability, Race, and Gender in Antebellum America" by Jenifer L. Barclay is a meticulously researched study that explores the intersection of race and disability in the context of antebellum southern slavery. Barclay argues that ideas about disability and race converged and reinforced each other, with "normal" bodies being racialized as white and "disabled" bodies being seen as black, pitiable, and monstrous. The book examines the lived experiences of disabled enslaved individuals, their roles within their families and communities, and the ways in which disability was metaphorically used to oppress black individuals in law, medicine, politics, and popular culture. Barclay's work sheds light on the often overlooked history of disabled enslaved people and challenges previous scholarship that has either medicalized or ignored their experiences. [Extracted from the article]

Anti-Black racism is a pernicious problem that has plagued the USA throughout history. In 2020, we saw intense moments that highlighted the stark anti-Black racism and racial inequity in America. Namely, the murder of George Floyd coupled with the disproportionate levels of negative outcomes from the COVID-19 pandemic affecting Black people in the USA. These instances called attention to the considerable racial inequality in US society and reminded many people that racism seeps throughout all facets of life. Our first goal with this special issue was to call attention to research within in the organizational sciences that focuses on anti-Black racism. The articles in this issue call attention to some of the manifestations and consequences of anti-Black racism as well as ways to reduce its insidious effects. Our second goal was to intentionally highlight the work of Black scholars in the field of I-O psychology. As such, we engaged in targeted recruiting that allowed us to successfully curate articles from a racially diverse group of scholars, and we are able to highlight the work of Black scholars and practitioners in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

These more local struggles have been pushed to the background by focus on abolitionism and civil rights on the national stage, but Masur shows that they were integral parts of the process of organizing and activism that allowed an American politics of civil rights to take form. [Extracted from the article]

We provide the literature's first estimates of economic outcomes for transgender people and other gender minorities in the United States using nationally representative data from the U.S. Census Bureau's Household Pulse Survey which identifies over 9,400 individuals from 2021 to 2022 who are non‐cisgender (i.e., whose current gender does not align with their sex assigned at birth). We find that non‐cisgender individuals are significantly less likely to be employed, have higher poverty rates, are more likely to have public health insurance, and report greater food insecurity compared to otherwise similar cisgender individuals. We also find that non‐cisgender Black individuals fare significantly worse than non‐cisgender white individuals. Our results demonstrate the precarious economic position of gender minority populations in America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article contextualizes the professional life and traumatizing lynching death of African American blackface minstrel Louis Wright in New Madrid, Missouri, in 1902. It unearths the physical dangers of "entertaining while Black" in early twentieth-century America. Wright's life serves as a window into the racialized, gendered world of the American minstrel stage, which is gleaned from advertising information, entertainer biographies, and the early twentieth-century theatrical press. The essay highlights the mid-nineteenth-century origins of African American blackface minstrelsy, chronicles obstacles unique to Black traveling performers, and investigates contradictory reporting in African American and White newspaper media accounts of white supremacist violence. Ultimately, the Wright case and the persistence of racial violence were among the motivating factors in the pursuit of autonomous Black traveling theater in American entertainment during the nadir. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the metaphor in Malcolm X's speech entitled The Black Revolution. The method used is qualitative descriptive method using the theory of Lakoff and Johnson (2003) and strengthened by the theory of Saeed (2005) in describing the characteristics contained in the metaphor. This analysis aims to identify the metaphors contained in Malcolm X's speech. The Black Revolution explains how oppression and injustice have been accepted by the black community in America over the years. The results of the research are Structural, Orientation, and Ontological metaphors. The most dominant metaphor used in speech is structural metaphor. Then there are the characteristics of Conventional, Systematic, Asymmetric, and Abstraction. The most dominant characteristic in speech is the systematic one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the George Floyd protests, psychoanalysts, along with corporations and yoga studios, made statements and offered anti-racism reading lists. But what if there is something about psychoanalysis' attempts to interpret racism that eludes such secondary process thinking? The occasion for this essay is an encounter with a published 1967 Bion seminar that featured a patient's dream of black people, in which the author examines examples of patient dreams about black people recorded in psychoanalytic articles from the 1940s to the 1970s. The author also recontextualizes Bion's 1967 seminar in terms of what is not included in the volume: the fact that it took place at the dawn of what came to be known as the "Long, Hot Summer of 1967" of racial unrest in America. Finally, the author briefly reconsiders what it might mean to practice without memory and desire when it is the memory of racism, both in the culture and psychoanalysis itself, which is at stake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses various issues of race and law enforcement in the USA through the lenses of critical race theory and Black radical tradition, precisely to convey the fact that racism is still alive and well in the USA and reverberates through the criminal justice system against Black people. American legal scholars are divided on which legal methodology is most appropriate in addressing racial cum legal issues. However, this article argues that tackling the systemic racism and the perilous proclivity of the police in brutalizing Black people in the USA cannot be adequately achieved through the current (mainstream) frameworks of rule of law and democracy because, arguably, these institutions were erected on the foundations of slavery and racism to principally serve the interests of White Americans. Using legal storytelling, the article narrates specific cases of police brutality and amplifies the voices of critical race theorists that racism in the USA cannot truly be dismantled solely via democratic dialogues and legal formalism as the mainstream view tends to always suggest. It posits that the hefty intellectual effort required to positively bend the mainstream towards realizing the constitutional rights of Black people in the USA can only be shouldered on Black radicalism and 'racial realism', as Derrick Bell, Cedric Robinson, and other scholars have opined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I review the literature on the social integration of black immigrants residing in the United States between 1910 and 2018, with the goal of highlighting how the growth of the black immigrant population has complicated the scholarly understanding of the causes and consequences of both intraracial disparities among blacks and disparities between blacks and whites in the United States. The article comprises three substantive sections. First, I examine the changing birth-country composition of the black immigrant population that arrived in the United States from 1900 to 1930 and review the literature on the social integration of black immigrants during the early twentieth century. Second, I review the literature that demonstrates how selective migration and disparate pre-1965 histories have shaped contemporary disparities between black immigrants and black Americans. Third, I discuss the implications of black immigration for understanding the evolution of racial disparities in the twenty-first century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hundreds of Castilian free blackmen and women obtained royal travel licenses to cross the Atlantic in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries as black Old Christians. They settled across the Spanish Indies and developed trades as artisans, traders, sailors, healers, and small business owners, often becoming prominent and wealthy vecinos (residents). Exploring these often obscure and long-invisible biographies of individuals, the article revisits key historiographical debates about race, purity of blood, and vassalage in the early Spanish empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the shutting off of public water supplies in Detroit metropolitan Black neighborhoods in Michigan.