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There is a lack of research examining how students' emotion regulation is linked to their well-being at school. To address this gap in the current literature, we examined reciprocal relations between two important emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and school-related well-being over 12 months across 2 school years. We collected data from 2,365 secondary and upper secondary students in England (aged 11-19 years) across three waves. Juxtaposing between-persons and within-person perspectives, we used a tripartite (three-part) latent cross-lagged panel model (CLPM), and a tripartite latent random intercept-cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to examine the directional ordering of the two strategies and well-being over time. Both the CLPM and RI-CLPM showed that reappraisal and school-related well-being were reciprocally related. Reappraisal positively predicted school-related well-being, and school-related well-being positively predicted reappraisal. Reappraisal also negatively predicted subsequent suppression, but not vice versa. Suppression and school-related well-being were not linked. Findings inform the design of intervention research in schools and colleges by highlighting the importance of cognitive reappraisal in the school-related well-being of adolescents.

The emotion of boredom has sparked considerable interest in research on teaching and learning, but boredom during tests and exams has not yet been examined. Based on the control-value theory of achievement emotions, we hypothesized that students may experience significant levels of boredom during testing ("test boredom"; Hypothesis 1) and that test boredom may be significantly related to theoretically hypothesized antecedents (control and value appraisals; Hypothesis 2) and outcomes (performance; Hypothesis 3). We further hypothesized that test boredom was more detrimental when students felt overchallenged during the test than when they felt underchallenged ("abundance hypothesis"; Hypothesis 4). We tested these hypotheses in two studies (Study 1: N = 208 eighth graders; 54% female; Study 2: N = 1,612 fifth to 10th graders, 47% female) using both trait and state measures of test boredom in mathematics and their proposed antecedents and outcomes. In support of Hypothesis 1, participants reported statistically significant levels of boredom during tests. Furthermore, the relations of test boredom with its control and value antecedents (i.e., being over- or underchallenged, facets of value) were in line with our assumptions (Hypothesis 2). In support of Hypothesis 3, test boredom was significantly negatively related to academic achievement (grades). In line with Hypothesis 4, test scores were negatively related to boredom due to being overchallenged but unrelated, or even positively related, to boredom due to being underchallenged. Directions for future research on test boredom as well as practical implications are outlined.

Both self-regulation and external regulation are key to understanding adolescents' learning and positive development at school. However, evidence on the joint development of self-regulated learning and externally regulated learning during adolescence is lacking. In addition, the current knowledge on interrelations between the development of adolescents' self-regulated learning, externally regulated learning, behaviors of teachers and parents in terms of autonomy support and achievement pressure, and academic achievement is very limited. The present multilevel longitudinal analysis focusing on the domain of mathematics (N = 1,542 German adolescents; annual assessments from Grades 5 to 9; mean age at Grade 5 = 11.79 years, SD = 0.71, 51.75% female) addressed these gaps. Results from multilevel latent basic growth curve models showed that self- and externally regulated learning decreased over the 5 years at both the individual student and the class level. Changes in self- and externally regulated learning were linked: Classes with higher levels of self-regulated learning at Grade 5 showed a stronger decrease in externally regulated learning over time. Initial levels of and changes in student-reported teacher and parental autonomy support and achievement pressure were associated with self- and externally regulated learning at the individual student level; student-reported teacher autonomy support and self-regulated learning were also linked at the class level. Self-regulated learning related positively to standardized achievement test scores but not to adolescents' grades. This study adds to the scarce evidence base on different regulatory forms of adolescents' learning and can inform future research on adolescents' positive development and educational practice.

School victimization issues remain largely unresolved due to over-reliance on unidimensional conceptions of victimization and data from a few developed OECD countries. Thus, support for cross-national generalizability over multiple victimization components (relational, verbal, and physical) is weak. Our substantive-methodological synergy tests the cross-national generalizability of a three-component model (594,196 fifteen-year-olds; nationally-representative samples from 77 countries) compared to competing (unidimensional and two-component) victimization models. We demonstrate the superior explanatory power of the three-component model--goodness-of-fit, component differentiation, and discriminant validity of the three components concerning gender differences, paradoxical anti-bullying attitudes (the Pro-Bully Paradox) whereby victims are more supportive of bullies than of other victims, and multiple indicators of well-being. For example, gender differences varied significantly across the three components, and all 13 well-being indicators were more strongly related to verbal and particularly relational victimization than physical victimization. Collapsing the three components into one or two components undermined discriminant validity. Cross-nationally, systematic differences emerged across the three victimization components regarding country-level means, gender differences, national development, and cultural values. These findings across countries support a tripartite model in which the three components of victimization--relational, verbal, and physical--relate differently to key outcomes. Thus, these findings advance victimization theory and have implications for policy, practice, and intervention. We also discuss directions for further research: the need for simultaneous evaluation of multiple, parallel components of victimization and bullying, theoretical definitions of bullying and victimization and their implications for measurement, conceptual bases of global victimization indices, cyberbullying, anti-bullying policies, and capitalizing on anti-bullying attitudes.

Conventional wisdom suggests that parents' educational expectations (how far they expect their children to go) and aspirations (how far they want their children to go) positively impact academic outcomes and benefits from attending high-ability schools. However, here we juxtapose the following: largely positive effects of educational expectations (of parents, teachers, and students); small, mixed effects of parent aspirations; largely adverse effects of parental aspiration-expectation gaps; and negative effects of school-average achievement on expectations, aspirations, and subsequent outcomes. We used a large, nationally representative longitudinal sample (16,197 Year-10 students from 751 US high schools).Controlling background (achievement, SES, gender, age, ethnicity, academic track, and a composite risk factor), Year 10 educational expectations of teachers and parents had consistently positive effects on the following: student expectations in Years 10 and 12, Year 10 academic self-concept, final high-school grade-point-averages, and long-term outcomes at age 26 (educational attainment, educational and occupational expectations). Effects of parent aspirations on these outcomes were predominantly small and mixed in direction. However, the aspiration-expectation gap negatively predicted all these outcomes. Contrary to our proposed Goldilocks Effect (not too much, not too little, but just right), non-linear effects of expectations and aspirations were small and largely non-significant.Parent, teacher, student expectations, and parent aspirations were all negatively predicted by school-average achievement (a big-fish-little-pond effect). However, these adverse effects of school-average achievement were larger for parents and particularly teachers than students. Furthermore, these expectations and aspirations partly mediated the adverse impacts of school-average achievement on subsequent grade-point-average and age-26 outcomes.

Achievement emotions have received increasing attention in research on adolescence and young adulthood, but little is known about these emotions in the early years of schooling. Studies addressing the development of different achievement emotions and their linkages with achievement during these years are largely lacking. The present longitudinal study aimed to fill this gap by examining the development of enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety in mathematics across second to fourth grade (N = 670 German students; Mage = 8.45 years, 51.0% female at baseline) as well as relations between these emotions and children's math achievement. Students' emotions during learning and when taking tests and exams in math, school grades in math, and math achievement test scores were measured in annual assessments. Latent structural equation modeling showed that enjoyment decreased, whereas boredom and anxiety remained relatively stable across these years. Moreover, the findings from reciprocal effects models (REMs) show that emotions and achievement were reciprocally linked over time, controlling for autoregressive effects, gender, and family socioeconomic status. Enjoyment positively predicted subsequent achievement, and achievement positively predicted subsequent enjoyment. Boredom and anxiety negatively predicted subsequent achievement, and achievement negatively predicted subsequent boredom and anxiety. The results were consistent across waves and achievement indicators and highlight the need to attend to students' achievement emotions during the early years of schooling. Directions for future research and implications for educational practice are discussed.

Background: This study examined the relations between students' expectancies for success and a physiological component of test anxiety, salivary cortisol, during an authentic testing setting. Aims: The aim of the study was to better understand the connection between shifts in students' control appraisals and changes in the physiological component of test anxiety. Sample: The study comprised 45 undergraduate engineering majors in the United States. Methods: Survey data concerning students' expectancy for success and saliva samples were taken before, during and after the practice midterm examination prior to their actual in-class examination. Results: Students' expectancy for success declined during the examination while cortisol levels declined from the beginning to middle of the examination and began to increase again as a function of time. Although students' initial levels of expectancy for success and cortisol were not correlated, there was a negative relation between change in cortisol and change in expectancy for success. Conclusions: Our study demonstrates a relation between salivary cortisol, a physiological component of test anxiety and students' expectancy for success in an authentic testing context. Most students saw a decrease in cortisol during the examination, suggesting anticipatory anxiety prior to the test and a return to homeostasis as the examination progressed. Some students, however, did not see a declination in cortisol, suggesting they may not have recovered from pre-examination anxiety. The negative relation between change in cortisol and expectancy for success suggests that students who had the greatest decrease in expectancy for success saw the smallest recovery in cortisol.

Background and Aims: Traditionally, research in educational psychology has neglected the physiological foundations of motivation, emotion, engagement, and learning. Recent studies have made substantial progress to more fully consider physiological processes, as documented in the contributions to this special issue. In this commentary, I summarize their findings, discuss strengths and weaknesses, and outline directions for future research. Results: The studies showcase how physiological indicators can be integrated in research in educational psychology. The resulting findings document links between cardiovascular, electrodermal, and hormonal parameters as well as physical activity and a range of mental and behavioural processes in educational settings. Together, they attest to the critical role of physiological processes in students' and teachers' engagement. However, most of the studies used small samples and correlational designs, and not all of the findings were consistent. Future Directions: To inform theory and practice in evidence-based ways, we need to make further headway in building a cumulative, coherent knowledge base. To this end, it may be helpful to more precisely specify the status of physiological indicators; secure construct symmetry of physiological, mental, and behavioural variables; use causal designs and within-person analysis; include sufficiently powered samples of participants and measurement occasions; employ multiple indicators and assessments to increase reliability and specificity; define the time windows and lags of assessments that are suited to capture physiological processes and their functions; and consider the role of socio-cultural contexts.

Proofs as epistemic tools are central to mathematical practice, as they establish and provide explanations for the validity of mathematical statements. Considering the challenge that proof construction poses to learners of all ages, prior research has investigated its cognitive determinants, but the impact of affective-motivational experiences on proof construction has been insufficiently investigated. Emotions related to knowledge acquisition (i.e., epistemic emotions) are assumed to play a key role in epistemic processes. In this study we investigated how the performance of 80 mathematics undergraduate students in a geometric proof construction task relates to the epistemic emotions experienced during proof construction. Controlling for geometry knowledge, we included control and value appraisals as antecedents in our investigation of epistemic emotions, and attention and motivation as mediators of their effects on proof construction performance. The results indicate that positive as well as negative emotions are influenced by students' appraisals, also indicating an interaction of both appraisal dimensions. Primarily enjoyment and curiosity mediate the effects of these appraisals on attention and motivation. These two markers of the proof construction process, in turn, mediate the effects of enjoyment and boredom on proof construction performance. In this study we investigated systematically the role of epistemic emotions in geometric proof construction and we offer insights that complement the existing research on the cognitive determinants of proof performance. Moreover, this study extended research on epistemic emotions into the area of proof construction, an epistemic process central to mathematics.

Understanding the structure, antecedents, and outcomes of students' emotions has become a topic of major interest in research on mathematics education. Much of this work is based on the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire--Mathematics (AEQ-M), a self-report instrument assessing students' mathematics-related emotions. The AEQ-M measures seven emotions (enjoyment, pride, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, boredom) across class, learning, and test contexts (internal structure). Based on control-value theory, it is assumed that these emotions are evoked by control and value appraisals, and that they influence students' motivation, learning strategies, and performance (external relations). Despite the popularity and frequent use of the AEQ-M, the research leading to its development has never been published, creating uncertainty about the validity of the proposed internal structure and external relations. We close this gap in Study 1 (N = 781 students, Grades 5-10, mean age 14.1 years, 53.5% female) by demonstrating that emotions are organized across contexts and linked to their proposed antecedents and outcomes. Study 2 (N = 699 students, Grade 7 and 9, mean age 14.0 years, 56.9% female) addresses another deficit in research on the AEQ-M, the lack of evidence regarding the assumption that emotions represent sets of interrelated affective, cognitive, motivational, and physiological/expressive components. We close this gap by evaluating extended AEQ-M scales, systematically assessing these components for five core mathematics emotions (enjoyment, anger, anxiety, hopelessness, boredom). Our work provides solid grounds for future research using the AEQ-M to assess emotions and their components in the domain of mathematics.

When individuals seek to learn about scientific information, they likely turn to the Internet. There, they will find multiple documents with conflicting points of view and varying degrees of accuracy. Integrating this information is challenging and may evoke epistemic emotions which may, in turn, influence how this information is integrated. Additionally, understanding complex scientific topics such as climate change requires causal reasoning. The current study investigated the role of emotions and prior knowledge in learning about the causes and effects of climate change from multiple texts. One hundred and twelve university students read either a congruent argument (two texts affirming the same point of view) or an incongruent argument (two texts with competing points of view). Text presentations were counterbalanced. Those who read congruent texts showed greater knowledge gains and were more likely to think causally than those in the incongruent group. Across all conditions, emotions tended to decrease in salience as participants read the second text, suggesting that individuals may become desensitized to the challenges of climate change with increased exposure to information. This suggests that caution must be taken to avoid promoting disengagement and inaction of individuals around controversial issues.

Much research shows academic self-concept and achievement are reciprocally related over time, based on traditional longitudinal data cross-lag-panel models (CLPM) supporting a reciprocal effects model (REM). However, recent research has challenged CLPM's appropriateness, arguing that CLPMs with random intercepts (RI-CLPMs) provide a more robust (within-person) perspective and better control for unmeasured covariates. However, there is much confusion in educational-psychology research concerning appropriate research questions and interpretations of RI-CLPMs and CLPMs. To clarify this confusion, we juxtapose CLPMs and RI-CLPMs relating math self-concept (MSCs), school grades, and achievement tests over the five years of compulsory secondary schooling (N = 3,425). We extend basic models to evaluate: directional ordering among three rather than only two constructs; longitudinal invariance over time (multiple school years) and multiple groups (school tracks); lag-2 paths between non-adjacent waves; and covariates (gender, primary-school math and verbal achievement). Across all basic and extended RI-CLPMs and CLPMs, there was consistent support for the REM bidirectional-ordering hypothesis that self-concept and achievement are each a cause and an effect of the other. Consistent with the logic of these models, extensions of the basic models had more effect on CLPMs, but the direction and statistical significance of cross-lagged paths were largely unaffected for both RI-CLPMs and CLPMs. This substantive-methodological synergy has important implications for theory, methodology, and policy/practice; we support the importance of MSC as a predictor of subsequent achievement and demonstrate a more robust methodological framework for evaluating longitudinal-panel models.

Academic self-concept and achievement have been found to be reciprocally related across time. However, existing research has focused on self-concept and achievement scores that have been averaged over long time-periods. For the first time, the present study examined intraindividual (within-person) relations between momentary (state) self-concept and lesson-specific perceived achievement (i.e., self-reported comprehension) in students' everyday school life in real time using intensive longitudinal data. We conducted an experience-sampling (e-diary) study with 372 German secondary school students in Grades 9 and 10 over a period of 3 weeks after each mathematics lesson. Multilevel confirmatory factor analyses confirmed a two-factor between-level and within-level structure of the state measures. We used dynamic structural equation modeling to specify a multilevel first-order vector autoregressive model to examine the dynamic relations between self-concept and perceived achievement. We found significant reciprocal effects between academic self-concept and perceived achievement on a lesson-to-lesson basis. Further, we found that these relations were independent of students' gender, reasoning ability, or mathematics grades. We discuss implications for methodology, theory, and practice in self-concept research and educational psychology more generally.

The proliferation of information and divergent viewpoints in the 21st century requires an educated citizenry with the ability to critically evaluate information and make informed decisions. To meet this demand, adaptive epistemic understandings and beliefs about the nature of knowledge are needed, such as believing that scientific knowledge is evolving (development of knowledge) and needs to be justified through experimentation (justification of knowledge). Our study is the first to use nationally representative samples from 72 countries/regions (PISA 2015 database; N = 514,119 students) to examine how scientific epistemic beliefs about development and justification of knowledge in science are associated with students' science motivation, achievement, and career aspirations in the STEM fields, as well as the cross-national generalizability of these relations. Results showed that: (a) students who had more adaptive beliefs about knowledge being changeable and stemming from experimentation were likely to have high science self-efficacy, utility value, and particularly high intrinsic value; (b) epistemic beliefs were more strongly linked to science achievement than were motivational constructs; (c) the positive relation between epistemic beliefs and STEM-related career aspirations was largely explained by motivation and achievement; (d) the pattern of results generalized well across societies. Our findings suggest that epistemic beliefs are substantially positively associated with adolescents' science learning, implying that developing effective interventions that focus on development and justification of knowledge would be fruitful for promoting science educational outcomes.

We juxtapose (positive and negative) compositional effects of school-average achievement and school-average socioeconomic status (SES) on students' academic self-concept (ASC), final high-school grade-point-average (GPA), and long-term outcomes at age 26 (educational attainment and educational and occupational expectations). We used doubly-latent multilevel compositional models with a large, nationally representative longitudinal sample (16,197 Year-10 students from 751 US high schools), controlling background variables (gender, age, ethnicity, academic track, and a composite risk factor). At the individual-student level, the effects of achievement, SES, ASC, and GPA on long-term outcomes were consistently positive. However, mostly consistent with a priori theoretical predictions, (1) the compositional effects of school-average achievement on ASC, GPA, and educational and occupational expectations were significantly negative (although non-significant for final attainment); (2) the compositional effects of school-average SES on ASC, educational attainment, and educational and occupational expectations were significantly positive (but nonsignificant for GPA); and (3) the compositional effects on long-term outcomes were partly mediated by ASC and particularly by GPA. These findings demonstrate that the positive effects of school-average SES are distinguishable from the adverse effects of school-average achievement. We discuss how these findings extend Göllner et al.'s (Psychological Science 29:1785-1796, 2018) highly controversial conclusion regarding the benefits of schools with high school-average SES but low school-average achievement. We also relate our research to Luthar et al.'s (American Psychologist 75:983-995, 2020) findings of adverse mental health problems associated with attending high-achieving schools. Our results have important implications not only for theory and methodology but also for parents' selection of schools for their children and policy regarding the structure of schools (a substantive-methodological synergy).

Based on control-value theory (CVT), we examined longitudinal relations between students' control and value appraisals, three activity-related achievement emotions (enjoyment, anger, and boredom), and math achievement (N = 1,716 fifth and seventh grade students). We assessed appraisals and emotions with self-report measures of perceived competence in math, perceived value of math, and math emotions, and achievement with school grades in math. All variables were measured in each of three consecutive annual assessments. Using structural equation modeling, we tested the CVT proposition that appraisals, emotions, and achievement show reciprocal relations over time. We hypothesized that (a) control-value appraisals influence the emotions, (b) the emotions influence achievement, and (c) achievement reciprocally influences appraisals and emotions. Supporting these hypotheses, the findings show that students' perceived competence and perceived value positively predicted their subsequent enjoyment and negatively predicted their anger and boredom, controlling for prior levels of these variables, gender, and prior achievement. Students' enjoyment positively predicted subsequent math achievement; anger and boredom negatively predicted achievement. Achievement showed reciprocal positive predictive effects on subsequent perceived competence, value, and enjoyment, and negative effects on subsequent anger and boredom; the effects on enjoyment and boredom were significant from Time 1 to 2 only. As posited in CVT, the effects of achievement on the emotions were mediated by perceived competence. In sum, the findings suggest that enjoyment, anger, and boredom influence students' achievement in mathematics, and that control-value appraisals and achievement are important antecedents of these emotions. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.

Reading texts can prompt intense emotions, and these emotions profoundly influence learning from texts. I first discuss the findings from the eight studies reported in this special issue. The studies represent pivotal advances in research on reading. Focusing on learning from science texts, they show that different emotions and different types of text influence reading in different ways. Furthermore, they document how the interplay of emotions, text features, and reading processes impacts knowledge acquisition, conceptual change, and attitude change. I then outline core directions for future research. We need to: (a) expand current theories to adequately explain the multiple links between emotions, cognitive processes, and motivational processes during reading; (b) use causal designs to disentangle the cause-effect relations linking these processes to antecedents and outcomes, including reciprocal causation; (c) complement between-person designs with intra-individual analysis; (d) use dynamic measurement and multichannel indicators to capture emotional processes; and (e) investigate the generalizability of current findings across diverse groups of learners and sociocultural contexts.

Control-value theory proposes that achievement emotions impact achievement, and that achievement outcomes (i.e., success and failure) reciprocally influence the development of achievement emotions. Academic buoyancy is an adaptive response to minor academic adversity, and might, therefore, offer protection from achievement being undermined by negative achievement emotions. At present, however, there is little empirical evidence for these hypothesized relations. In this study we examined reciprocal relations between three achievement emotions (enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety) and test performance in the context of mathematics, and whether academic buoyancy moderated relations between these emotions and test performance. Data were collected from 1,242 primary school students (mean age = 9.3 years) over 4 waves within 1 school year. Achievement emotions (T[subscript 1] and T[subscript 3]) and test performance (T[subscript 2] and T[subscript 4]) were measured alternately. Academic buoyancy was measured at T[subscript 3]. A structural equation model showed negative relations of anxiety to subsequent test performance and negative relations of test performance to subsequent anxiety. Test performance also predicted enjoyment and boredom, but not vice versa. A latent-interaction structural equation model showed buoyancy moderated relations between anxiety and test performance. Test performance was highest when anxiety was low and buoyancy high. Practitioners should consider using interventions to reduce anxiety and downstream effects on achievement.

The big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), the negative effect of school-/class-average achievement on academic self-concept, is one of educational psychology's most universal findings. However, critiques of this research have proposed moderators based on achievement motivation theories. Nevertheless, because these motivational theories are not sufficiently well-developed to provide unambiguous predictions concerning moderation of the BFLPE and underlying social comparison processes, we developed a Theory-Integrating Approach; bringing together a panel of experts, independently making theoretical predictions, revising the predictions over several rounds based on independent feedback from the other experts, and a summary of results. We pit a priori hypotheses derived from achievement motivation theories against the more parsimonious a priori prediction that there is no moderation based on previous BFLPE empirical research and Darwinian-economic theory (N = 1,925 Hong Kong students, 47 classes, M age = 12 years). Consistent with both BFLPE research and Darwinian perspectives, but in contrast to achievement motivation theory predictions, the highly significant BFLPE was not moderated by any of the following: prior achievement, expectancy-value theory variables, achievement goals, implicit theories of ability, self-regulated learning strategies, and social interdependence theory measures. Although we cannot "prove" that there are no student-level moderators of the BFLPE, our synthesis of social comparison posited in the BFLPE theory and an evolutionary perspective support BFLPE's generalizability. We propose further integration of our Theory-Integrating Approach with traditional Delphi methods, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to develop a priori theoretical predictions and identify limitations in existing theory as an alternative form of systematic review.

Achievement emotions are emotions linked to academic, work, or sports achievement activities (activity emotions) and their success and failure outcomes (outcome emotions). Recent evidence suggests that achievement emotions are linked to motivational, self-regulatory, and cognitive processes that are crucial for academic success. Despite the importance of these emotions, syntheses of empirical findings investigating their relation with student achievement are scarce. We broadly review the literature on achievement emotions with a focus on activity-related emotions including enjoyment, anger, frustration, and boredom, and their links to educational outcomes with two specific aims: to aggregate all studies and determine how strongly related those emotions are to academic performance, and to examine moderators of those effects. A meta-analytical review was conducted using a systematic database of 68 studies. The 68 studies included 57 independent samples for enjoyment (N = 31,868), 25 for anger (N = 11,153), 9 for frustration (N = 1418), and 66 for boredom (N = 28,410). Results indicated a positive relation between enjoyment of learning and academic performance ([rho] = 0.27), whereas the relations were negative for both anger ([rho] = - 0.35) and boredom ([rho] = - 0.25). For frustration, the relation with performance was near zero ([rho] = - 0.02). Moderator tests revealed that relations of activity emotions with academic performance are stronger when (a) students are in secondary school compared with both primary school and college, and (b) the emotions are measured by the Achievement Emotions Questionnaires -- Mathematics (AEQ-M). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Test anxiety is a widespread and mostly detrimental emotion in learning and achievement settings. Thus, it is a construct of high interest for researchers and its measurement is an important issue. So far, test anxiety has typically been assessed using self-report measures. However, physiological measures (e.g., heart rate or skin conductance level) have gained increasing attention in educational research, as they allow for an objective and often continuous assessment of students' physiological arousal (i.e., the physiological component of test anxiety) in real-life situations, such as a test. Although theoretically one would assume self-report measures of test anxiety and objective physiological measures would converge, empirical evidence is scarce and findings have been mixed. To achieve a more coherent picture of the relationship between these measures, this systematic review and meta-analysis investigated whether higher self-reported test anxiety is associated with expected increases in objectively measured physiological arousal. A systematic literature search yielded an initial 231 articles, and a structured selection process identified 29 eligible articles, comprising 31 studies, which met the specified inclusion criteria and provided sufficient information about the relationship under investigation. In line with theoretical models, in 21 out of the 31 included studies, there was a significant positive relationship between self-reported test anxiety and physiological arousal. The strengths of these correlations were of medium size. Moderators influencing the relation between these two measures are discussed, along with implications for the assessment of physiological data in future classroom-based research on test anxiety.

Background: Appraisals of control and value are proposed as proximal antecedents of achievement emotions, which, in turn, predict achievement. Relatively few studies have investigated how control and value may interact to determine achievement emotions, or subsequent achievement mediated by emotions. Aim: To examine whether control, value, and their interaction predicted mathematics test score directly, and indirectly, mediated by three salient achievement emotions: enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety. Method: Data were collected from 1,298 primary schoolchildren. Participants completed self-report measures of control, value (i.e., intrinsic, attainment, and utility), and achievement emotions (i.e., enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety), in the context of mathematics. Participants then undertook a curriculum-based mathematics test in class. Results: Higher control and value were related to a higher mathematics test score directly, and indirectly, mediated via higher enjoyment and lower anxiety. The interaction of control and intrinsic value predicted mathematics test score directly, and indirectly, mediated via enjoyment. Conclusion: Intrinsic value amplified the direct positive relation between control and mathematics test score. Intrinsic value also protected mathematics test scores at lower levels of control indirectly, through higher enjoyment. Helping students to maximize control and value will be beneficial for their learning experience and outcomes.

In its original version, control-value theory describes and explains achievement emotions. More recently, the theory has been expanded to also explain epistemic, social, and existential emotions. In this article, I outline the development of the theory, from preliminary work in the 1980s to early versions of the theory and the recent generalized control-value theory. I provide summaries of the theory’s evidence-based propositions on antecedents, outcomes, and regulation of emotions, including the fundamentally important role of control and value appraisals across different types of human emotions that are relevant to education (and beyond). The theory includes descriptive taxonomies of emotions as well as propositions explaining (a) the influence of individual factors, social environments, and socio-cultural contexts on emotions; (b) the effects of emotions on learning, performance, and health; (c) reciprocal causation linking emotions, outcomes, and antecedents; (d) ways to regulate emotions; and (e) strategies for intervention. Subsequently, I outline the relevance of the theory for educational practice, including individual and large-scale assessments of emotions; students’, teachers’, and parents’ understanding of emotions; and change of educational practices. In conclusion, I discuss strengths of the theory, open questions, and future directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recent research on boredom suggests that it can emerge in situations characterized by over‐ and under‐challenge. In learning contexts, this implies that high boredom may be experienced both by low‐ and high‐achieving students. Aims: This research aimed to explore the existence and prevalence of boredom due to being over‐ and under‐challenged in mathematics, for which empirical evidence is lacking. Sample: We employed a sample of 1.407 students (fifth to ninth graders) from all three secondary school tracks (lower, middle and upper) in Bavaria (Germany). Methods: Boredom was assessed via self‐report and achievement via a standardized mathematics test. We used latent profile analysis to identify groups characterized by different levels of boredom and achievement, and we additionally examined gender and school track as group membership predictors. Results: Results revealed four distinct groups, of which two showed considerably high boredom. One was coupled with low achievement on the test (i.e. 'over‐challenged group', 13% of the total sample), and one was coupled with high achievement (i.e. 'under‐challenged group', 21%). Furthermore, we found a low boredom and high achievement (i.e. 'well‐off group', 27%) and a relatively low boredom low achievement group (i.e. 'indifferent group', 39%). Girls were overrepresented in the over‐challenged group, and students from the upper school track were underrepresented in the under‐challenged group. Conclusion: Our research emphasizes the need to openly discuss and further investigate boredom due to being over‐ and under‐challenged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated knowledge and attitudes before and after reading refutation texts augmented by different kinds of persuasive information and how emotions mediated the process of knowledge and attitude change. Undergraduates (N = 424) enrolled in 4 universities from 3 countries read a refutation text on genetically modified foods (GMFs) and were then randomly assigned to receive additional information about advantages of GMFs, disadvantages of GMFs, or both. After studying, students reading about advantages of GMFs had significantly more positive attitudes than students who read about disadvantages. There was also a significant reduction in misconceptions; participants in the positive-oriented text condition showed the largest learning gains, particularly those who held more positive initial attitudes. Epistemic emotions of curiosity, frustration, hope, and enjoyment mediated attitude change while confusion mediated relations between prereading attitudes and postreading knowledge. In addition, the direct relationship between prior attitudes and surprise was moderated by type of text. When reading about both advantages and disadvantages of GMFs, participants reported significantly less surprise when compared with those who read about either advantages or disadvantages of GMFs. To foster conceptual change when learning about complex topics, refutation texts may be paired with persuasive information that is aligned with accurate conceptions.

Expectancy-value theory (EVT) is a popular framework to understand and improve students' motivation. Unfortunately, limited research has verified whether EVT predictions generalize to students with low levels of cognitive ability. This study relies on Grade 5 and 8 data from 177 students with low levels of cognitive ability and a matched sample of 177 students with average to high cognitive ability from the German "Project for the Analysis of Learning and Achievement in Mathematics." Results showed that students with low levels of cognitive ability were able to differentiate EVT components. Both groups demonstrated a similar downward developmental trend in motivation from early to middle adolescence, and similar relations between EVT components and levels of efforts, self-regulation, and mathematics class grades.

Curiosity and interest are at the core of human inquiry. However, controversies remain about how best to conceptualize these constructs. I propose to derive definitions by attending to the common core of typical usages of the two terms. Using this approach, curiosity can be defined as a psychological state that includes three components: recognition of an information gap, anticipation that it may be possible to close it, and an intrinsically motivated desire to do so. Interest can be more broadly defined as intrinsically motivated engagement with any specific object, content, or activity. The two definitions imply that curiosity is a special case of interest. Furthermore, I propose to use the state-trait distinction to distinguish between momentary and enduring forms of both curiosity and interest, which makes it possible to treat state versus trait curiosity and interest in conceptually parallel ways. To make further progress in understanding the two constructs, research is needed that investigates their affective dynamics and their generalizability across age-related and socio-cultural contexts.

This study extends the classic constructive dialogue/debate between self-concept and self-efficacy researchers (Marsh, Roche, Pajares, & Miller, 1997) regarding the distinctions between these 2 constructs. The study is a substantive-methodological synergy, bringing together new substantive, theoretical, and statistical models and developing new tests of the classic jingle-jangle fallacy. We demonstrate that in a representative sample of 3,350 students from math classes in 43 German schools, generalized math self-efficacy and math outcome expectancies were indistinguishable from math self-concept, but were distinct from test-related and functional measures of self-efficacy. This is consistent with the jingle-jangle fallacies that are proposed. On the basis of pretest variables, we demonstrate negative frame-of-reference effects in social (big-fish-little-pond effect) and dimensional (internal/external frame-of-reference effect) comparisons for three self-concept-like constructs in each of the first 4 years of secondary school. In contrast, none of the frame-of-reference effects were significantly negative for either of the two self-efficacy-like constructs in any of the 4 years of testing. After controlling for pretest variables, each of the 3 self-concept-like constructs (math self-concept, outcome expectancy, and generalized math self-efficacy) in each of the 4 years of secondary school was more strongly related to posttest outcomes (school grades, test scores, future aspirations) than were the corresponding 2 self-efficacy-like factors. Extending discussion by Marsh et al. (1997), we clarify distinctions between self-efficacy and self-concept; the role of evaluation, worthiness, and outcome expectancy in self-efficacy measures; and complications in generalized and global measures of self-efficacy.

Achievement emotions are critical because of their impact on success and failure in important domains such as learning. These emotions may be modified via emotion regulation (ER). The dominant process model of ER (PMER) proposed by J. Gross, however, provides a domain-general account of ER strategies and has not had substantial contact with theories of achievement emotions such as R. Pekrun's control-value theory (CVT) and the academic achievement literature. Moreover, ER has not been a focal point of major theories related to achievement emotions, such as CVT. We propose an integrated model of ER in achievement situations (ERAS) that integrates propositions about the generation of emotions from CVT with propositions about how emotions are regulated and types of ER strategies from PMER. The ERAS model also offers new propositions regarding how different achievement situations, object foci, and time frames, as well as discrete emotions with different appraisal patterns, impact ER strategies.

This study examined the role of emotions in predicting university faculty teaching and research performance while addressing the methodological limitations of past research. Recruited using social media, 312 early-career faculty completed an online survey containing six newly adapted multi-item emotion scales assessing enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom related to both teaching and research. Analyses supported the reliability as well as convergent and divergent validity of the scales. Results of structural equation modeling revealed that enjoyment positively predicted perceived success whereas anxiety and boredom negatively predicted success in both teaching and research, even after accounting for social-environmental predictors. The emotions also significantly related to faculty research publication and citation counts. In terms of implications for faculty development, the findings suggest that fostering value and control may be a mechanism for improving faculty emotions and performance in teaching and research. The discussion includes future theoretical and methodological contributions.

The current mixed-method study examined the emotions experienced by pretenure faculty regarding teaching and research, specifically their emotion frequency, antecedents, and relationships with perceived success. Interviews with 11 faculty identified 46 discrete emotions with the most common being enjoyment, frustration, excitement, happiness, and anxiety. A survey of 102 pretenure faculty found more enjoyment, happiness, pride, satisfaction, and relaxation regarding teaching; conversely more frustration, anxiety, worry, fear, envy, shame, loneliness, and hopelessness in research. Path analyses revealed faculty control, value, and positive/negative affect mediate the relationships of collegiality and balance with self-reported success. The results have implications for faculty development.

In the current society, boredom has a bad reputation. Among others, one reason is that boredom is a negative predictor for cognitive performance due to the detrimental effects on attention and engagement. Recently, however, the negative reputation has been challenged by studies showing that boredom seems to promote creativity. However, those studies examined the influence of incidental boredom on apparently unrelated creativity tasks, leaving it open to question what happens when the individual gets bored by the task itself. To examine this issue, participants performed six blocks of a creativity task, and we measured creativity performance and experienced boredom across blocks. Results showed that boredom increased in parallel with fluency performance. However, more detailed analyses showed that the fluency increase was not brought about by the increase in boredom but was fully accounted for by the effect of increased task practice. When controlling for practice effects, results revealed that boredom actually impaired fluency. Such a finding supports the view that boredom has a negative impact on cognitive performance and underlines the necessity for changes in educational settings to prevent boredom.

Based on the control-value theory of achievement emotions, this longitudinal study examined students' control-value appraisals as antecedents of their enjoyment and boredom in mathematics. Self-report data for appraisals and emotions were collected from 579 students in their final year of primary schooling over three waves. Data were analyzed using latent interaction structural equation modeling. Control-value appraisals predicted emotions interactively depending on which specific subjective value was paired with perceived control. Achievement value amplified the positive relation between perceived control and enjoyment, and intrinsic value reduced the negative relation between perceived control and boredom. These longitudinal findings demonstrate that control and value appraisals, and their interaction, are critically important for the development of students' enjoyment and boredom over time.