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This paper advances the concept of 'waste formations' as a way of thinking together processes of race, space, and waste in brownfield redevelopment projects. Defined as formerly industrial and contaminated properties, in the 1990s brownfields emerged as the grounds for new forms of urbanization and an emerging environmental remediation industry. Through their redevelopment, the twentieth century's urban wastelands-environmentally degraded, economically divested, and often racially marked-have become sites of investment, resignification, and value formation. The concept of waste formations provides a critical framework on the ways these socio-ecological transformations rework twentieth century urban inequalities-in particular, the articulation of waste and toxic waste-and the ways they produce new geographies of environmental injustice through the displacement of toxic waste to newly waste-able spaces. This paper develops an analytic of waste formations and applies it to the process of brownfield redevelopment at the Hunters Point Shipyard in southeast San Francisco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An investigation in overcoming the economic and financial barriers that prevent affordable housing on brownfield sites. • The case studies cover the development of three large scale brownfield sites that integrate affordable housing in the City of San Francisco. • Theoretical barriers include: (1) economic geography; and (2) economic viability and sustainability. More practical barriers include: (3) affordable housing quality; and (4) transcending scale for policy efficacy. • Discussion that viability includes internal-external costs of quality when building affordable housing on large-scale brownfield land. Brownfield development incorporates both private and public costs due to the contamination of land. Furthermore, brownfield sites generate negative externalities on real estate viability, and are perceived to be risky and costly for development. Viability risk makes affordable housing development on brownfield sites even more financially and economically challenging. To understand this issue, this paper introduces a conceptual model to analyse and overcome the economic and financial barriers to meet both community and environmental concerns, as well as verifying how it holds in practice via case studies that cover the development of three large scale brownfield sites that integrate affordable housing in the City of San Francisco. Significant barriers to overcome include (1) engaging with economic geography rationale; (2) integrating with economic viability and sustainability concerns; (3) increasing affordable housing quality; and (4) transcending scale to improve policy tool efficacy. Conclusions argue that viability needs to consider cost-quality both internally and externally for high-quality affordable housing units in large-scale brownfield environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]