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In 1947, the Cornell psychiatrist Keeve Brodman and a handful of colleagues began developing what would become one of the most widely used health questionnaires of its time—the Cornell Medical Index (CMI). A rigidly standardized form, the CMI presented 195 yes-no questions designed to capture the health status of "the total patient." Over the following decades, Brodman's project of standardizing medical history taking gradually evolved into a project of mathematizing and computerizing diagnosis: out of the CMI grew the Medical Data Screen (MDS), one of the first computerized methods of deriving diagnoses from patient data. This essay follows the life course of these tools through the second half of the twentieth century. It argues for a genealogy of biomedical computing and computerized diagnosis that takes more seriously the continuities between computer-based digital practices and paper-based analog ones. The computerized MDS evolved from, and rested upon, paper data practices associated with questionnaires and surveys. The interlocking histories of the CMI and the MDS prompt a reconsideration of the material and temporal parameters within which the history of computerized medicine has conventionally been understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative (GCSWI) reflects the power and potential of social work to accelerate social innovations and resolve major social problems. The complexity of these societal problemsmandates profession-wide entrepreneurial readiness to engage in transdisciplinary, interprofessional, and translational collaborations. The GCSWI galvanizes shifts in undergraduate, master's, doctoral, and early career supports to equip social work graduates at all levels to design, test, disseminate, and sustain innovative solutions. This paper describes the relevance of the GCSWI to professional education and suggests the collective-impact model as a heuristic for professional preparation to collaborate in grand challenge contexts. This paper also describes the pedagogical thinking underlying a T-shaped professional and the logic behind translational and innovation meta-competencies as pipeline connections across grand challenges, disciplinary partners, and stakeholder involvement. In addition, the paper illustrates meta-competencies preparation for practice that infuses an innovationmindset and skill readiness consonant with a collective-impact framework, and it illustrates application of meta-competencies within the Grand Challenge to Achieve Equal Opportunity and Justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 12 Grand Challenges for Social Work make clear the need for a broad new approach for social work to solve complex contemporary social problems. The grand challenges likewise highlight the importance of developing and coordinating a plan to prepare the next generations of social work scholars for high-impact careers that contribute to the identification and implementation of solutions. This paper provides an overview of contemporary trends affecting the scientific enterprise in which our current and emerging scholars operate and within which strong practice, policy, and community-engaged research partnerships must be forged and sustained. We discuss modes of successful transdisciplinary team and translational science and how we expect these new scientific approaches to advance the Grand Challenges for Social Work. We identify the major challenges entailed in this ambitious agenda and highlight strategies for successfully conducting coordinated team science that spans disciplines and extends across the entire translational continuum. We outline a series of skills and competencies needed to conduct transdisciplinary team science across the translational continuum, and we offer potential education and training strategies to enhance the transdisciplinary team science and translational capacity of social work research. We conclude with perspectives on how to unite social work visions and organizational capacities to support our transdisciplinary team and translational science efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1946 General Dwight Eisenhower, the Army Chief of Staff, established the Research and Development (R&D) Division on the War Department General Staff to expedite major technological breakthroughs in weapons technology. This goal, based on the separation of the management of R&D from procurement, captured the Army's preference for qualitative rather than quantitative superiority on the battlefield, but it threatened to upend entrenched methods of incremental product improvement under way in the Army's supply organizations, collectively called the technical services. The division's brief existence (it ceased operations in 1947) contrasted sharply with the longevity of the Ordnance Department's in-house manufacturing arsenals; for more than a century they had exploited synergies between R&D and production to turn out new weapons mass-produced in industry. The history of the R&D Division and the corresponding management of technological innovation in the technical services broadens an otherwise narrow historiographical interpretation of postwar knowledge production in the United States that is still focused heavily on the moral and political economy of military-funded academic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of a nationwide destruction of rural high schools immediately after the Cultural Revolution in China on education and labor market outcomes. Combining unique data on the county-level timing of school closures with the 1990 census microdata, I first document a sharp decline of 35% in high school completion in the first cohort exposed to the closures. I then find that the school closures led to negative labor market performances a decade later: affected individuals were 10% less likely to work off-farm and 29% less likely to work in a white-collar job. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay traces the history of refereeing at specialist scientific journals and at funding bodies and shows that it was only in the late twentieth century that peer review came to be seen as a process central to scientific practice. Throughout the nineteenth century and into much of the twentieth, external referee reports were considered an optional part of journal editing or grant making. The idea that refereeing is a requirement for scientific legitimacy seems to have arisen first in the Cold War United States. In the 1970s, in the wake of a series of attacks on scientific funding, American scientists faced a dilemma: there was increasing pressure for science to be accountable to those who funded it, but scientists wanted to ensure their continuing influence over funding decisions. Scientists and their supporters cast expert refereeing—or “peer review,” as it was increasingly called—as the crucial process that ensured the credibility of science as a whole. Taking funding decisions out of expert hands, they argued, would be a corruption of science itself. This public elevation of peer review both reinforced and spread the belief that only peer-reviewed science was scientifically legitimate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay argues for taking fieldwork seriously, but not too seriously. It focuses on geologists and geomorphologists in the United States in the post–World War II decades who used irony, satire, and self-conscious staging to negotiate the contradictions between the tradition of frontier fieldwork that they had inherited from the late nineteenth century and the realities of mid-twentieth-century fieldwork, which they often found hard to fit into the heroic mold. Poking fun at the fieldwork tradition, the essay argues, helped them claim that tradition as their own even while constructing new scientific personas and practices that diverged from it in a number of ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines a range of possibilities and offers examples for implementing elements of the Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative in schools and departments of social work. The intent is to identify how deans, directors, and faculty champions can conceptualize actions and roles that engage students, faculty members, schools, and university systems in grand challenges activities. Because there is no precedent in social work for connecting science, practice, and a universal social agenda such as the grand challenges initiative, these ideas are fledgling and emergent in character rather than prototypic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces readers to four invited articles comprising a special section on implementing the Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative. We highlight key contributions made by the authors of each article, which collectively explore implications of the grand challenges initiative for social work education, science, campus leadership, and campus-community collaboration. We describe how substantive points raised in the special section connect to the rapidly growing interdisciplinary literature on the implementation of grand challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What are the narratives that guide the history of science? Certainly one of the more recent ones is "science in action," the emphasis on practices and the imperative of studying science as performed. Perhaps not surprisingly, this story itself has a history; it starts in the early 1960s, when the project "Sources for History of Quantum Physics" was established. The main task of Thomas S. Kuhn, John L. Heilbron, and Paul Forman's work, lasting three years, was to interview the old heroes of quantum mechanics and to archive the spoken word. While giving an account of the project's history, this essay will focus on the process of interviewing and characterize its wider context. Not only does their approach offer us important insights into the shaping of the persona of the scientist; it also represents an important step toward the post-Kuhnian way of doing history of science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents history of science-related news briefs on topics including the History of Science Society Annual Meeting which was held in 2018, Science History Institute Haas Postdoctoral Fellow Ingrid Ockert's receipt of the 2018 2018 HSS/NASA Fellowship in Aerospace History. It states that historian Owen Hyman's won the Ronald Rainger Prize for his essay "Anxieties of the Plastic Age: Cotton Culture, White Supremacy, and Tenant Forestry in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, 1935–1953."

In this commentary, we address the strengths and limitations of prevailing conceptualizations of family, particularly in relation to advancing health equity. To better attend to the continuing evolution and diversification of family experiences in the United States, we propose the CHIEF framework, which represents chosen , household , immediate , extended , and fictive kin families. We call on social work and its governing bodies to center diverse family structures, backgrounds and experiences in research, practice, and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Public attitudes toward immigrants influence their adaptation to new circumstances. This study examines public attitudes toward immigrants in the United States to identify the patterns of attitude change from 1996 to 2014; the relationship between individuals' income and the trajectory of attitudes toward immigrants is investigated as well. Method: I conducted a latent growth model using the General Social Survey data sets (1996, 2004, and 2014), which included a module on immigration. The total sample size was 3,639. All participants were U.S. citizens. Results: General attitudes toward immigrants have significantly worsened from 1996 to 2014 (intercept = 2.510, slope = −.025, p <.001). Respondents' annual household income influenced the trajectory of attitudes toward immigrants (β =.002, SE =.001, p =.006), with poorer households having more negative attitudes toward immigrants. Conclusions: Study findings warn of growing anti-immigrant sentiments. Further investigation is needed to correct negative stereotypes and misconceptions about the harm caused by immigration to the U.S. economy and welfare of the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This scoping review examines the methods used in studies of antiracism interventions in the United States during 2014–2021. Method: Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we used a systematic search and review process to identify, screen, and summarize research on individual-level interventions intended to reduce racial bias and discrimination. Results: The search recovered 1,928 citations. After screening, 17 articles were retained for a full-text review. Of those, 9 studies used a pre- and post-intervention design without a comparison or control group, 5 used a comparison group, 1 used a randomized control group, and 2 used a single-group posttest-only approach. Except for one study with 8,634 participants, samples ranged from 20 to 721 participants (M = 112, SD = 164.8). Eleven studies used reliable/valid instruments to measure racial bias and discrimination. Thirteen studies explicitly stated theoretical models used in intervention development. Conclusions: Based on features of the 17 interventions, participants and sampling methods, analytical methods, guiding theories, and effectiveness, we recommend (a) use of more rigorous designs to enhance internal validity and (b) use of advanced analytic techniques to control selection bias. If implemented, these recommendations would substantially strengthen research on individual-level interventions designed to reduce racial bias and discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Although essential workers of color in the United States have been notably at risk during the COVID-19 pandemic, less is known about the impacts of associated life stressors within this population. Thus, the purpose of this study is to understand (a) the impact of life stressors among a sample of essential workers of color during the COVID-19 pandemic and (b) associations between life stressors and sociodemographic characteristics, work, mental health, substance use, and eating behaviors. Method: Essential workers of color (N = 319) completed the Holms-Rahe Life Stress Inventory to examine whether any set of 43 life stress experiences occurred because of COVID-19. We used latent class analysis to examine patterns of clustering. Results: We identified three latent classes: (a) minimally impacted, (b) moderately impacted, and (c) widely impacted. Most of our sample reported being minimally impacted (53%) or moderately impacted (35%) by life events during the pandemic. However, participants clustered within the widely impacted pattern (11%) reported significantly more concerns with substance use, binge eating, and perceived stress. Conclusions: Findings highlight distinct patterns of life-stress impacts caused by COVID-19 among essential workers of color. Social workers must consider how to implement policies to reduce the systematic challenges faced by those who are most marginalized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social work profession in the United States is striving to advance antiracism amidst increasing threats of white supremacist violence. However, tensions and paradoxes in the contexts of academic research and knowledge development, education and teaching, and service undermine the profession's efforts. Structural or institutional processes—in higher education broadly and in schools of social work specifically—shape who publishes research, educates, and serves, and how labor is evaluated and rewarded. We identify practical recommendations to advance antiracism while cautioning against overemphasizing the responsibility of individual actors. Recommendations include prioritizing and generously funding scholarship on white supremacy and antiracism, providing clinical and adjunct faculty with sufficient remuneration and supports to excel in teaching, joining with students in protest against oppressive conditions in higher education, and equalizing rewards for service in accordance with those for research. Social workers must work proactively across multiple contexts to realize our professional commitment to dismantling white supremacy and advancing antiracism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective : Racial economic disparities are wide and persistent in the United States. This study aims to expand our knowledge of racial economic disparities by examining the role of parental financial assistance for college in maintaining racial income disparities across generations. Method : Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, I applied Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition to separate the Black–white income disparity into an explained component (disparity due to compositional differences in parental socioeconomic status and financial assistance) and an unexplained component. Results : Black children have a lower chance of receiving parental financial assistance for college mostly due to their parents' lower levels of socioeconomic resources compared to white parents. Parental financial assistance explains a significant portion (7%) of the Black–white income disparity, but it loses its statistical significance when children's own educational attainment is considered. Conclusions : Parental financial assistance for college is one mechanism through which parents' socioeconomic resources perpetuate the Black–white income disparity across generations. Findings support the need for social policies to promote equal educational opportunity for all children and to reduce racial economic disparities. Lowering financial barriers to college would improve all children's economic prospects and reduce racial economic disparities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Housing insecurity strains low-income families throughout the United States. Children exposed to housing problems face increased risk of adverse parenting and maltreatment. Despite a large body of research on parenting of young children, less is known about pathways to adverse parenting behaviors toward adolescents. The present study investigated the roles of maternal depression and parenting stress in mediating the link from housing insecurity in early childhood to adverse parenting in adolescence. Method: The present study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Survey (N = 2,719) in structural equation models with latent variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) tested whether observed variables were valid indicators of latent constructs. A structural model tested direct and indirect pathways from housing insecurity to adverse parenting behaviors via maternal depression and parenting stress. Results: The CFA and structural models showed excellent fit to the data. Housing insecurity was indirectly associated with adverse parenting via parenting stress but not via maternal depression. Conclusions: Parenting stress is a significant factor in the link between housing insecurity and adverse parenting toward adolescents. Timely mental health screening and supports for unstably housed families offer opportunities for maltreatment prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted access to and the delivery of behavioral health services for social work providers and their clients. This study examined the use of tele-behavioral health by social workers before and during the pandemic, as well as the perceived barriers and supports to technology use. Method: We developed an electronic survey, which was distributed to a convenience sample of practicing social work professionals in the United States through a national listserv. A mixed-methods study design was used to analyze responses (N = 585). Results: Over 92% of social workers reported using tele-behavioral health since the beginning of the pandemic, compared to 28% prior. About half of respondents received training on tele-behavioral health since COVID-19, whereas only 23% had received training prior. The vast majority (87%) indicated one or more barriers to the use of tele-behavioral health, with client barriers (73%) being the area of greatest concern. Yet, social workers overwhelmingly reported the desire for tele-behavioral health to continue beyond the pandemic. Conclusions: Based on our findings, we propose the following recommendations: (a) Ensure parity and reimbursement for tele-behavioral health; (b) train current and future social work practitioners in tele-behavioral health; and (c) provide supports for client use of tele-behavioral health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1794 the exiled chemist Joseph Priestley found asylum in the United States, where science was seen as both an international endeavor that depended upon human rights and a tool that would enhance national development. The arrival of Priestley, the first of many scientific exiles to relocate to the United States, seemed to fulfill Jeremy Belknap's 1780 description of the United States as "the Mistress of the Sciences, as well as the Asylum of Liberty." By declaring the United States the best, freest place to practice science, American scientists began to realign scientific internationalism according to U.S. interests and linked the universal ideals of science to the national mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study is to develop and initially validate a psychometrically sound instrument to assess the extent to which Latinx immigrants are viewed as a threat. Method: Drawing on the integrated threat theory (ITT), we developed an initial pool of scale items to represent realistic and symbolic threats. Following best practices in scale construction, we used exploratory factor analysis followed by confirmatory factor analysis to identify, calibrate, and cross-validate the scale structure. A triadic random split of the sample (N = 958) of U.S.-born white college students was used to carry out the three-stage study. Results: Across all stages, findings support the unidimensionality of the 12-item Latinx Immigrant Threat Attitudes Scale (LITAS). Offering evidence of criterion validity, higher LITAS scores were associated with lower support for policies integrating unauthorized immigrants. Conclusions: The LITAS fills a significant gap in the measurement literature. The instrument supports the design and testing of interventions aimed at improving intergroup relations and the lived experience of Latinx immigrants in the United States. Contrary to the widely-used ITT, an undifferentiated, global notion of threat perception is salient; the implications of empirical divergence from the ITT are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The postwar era produced novel pedagogical projects aimed at integrating history and science teaching. Above all, these were shaped by the pedagogy of James Bryant Conant, who placed history at the heart of general science education. While Conant's expansive vision for history of science ultimately was not realized, its emphasis on experiential learning for nonscientists is worth revisiting for current integrative approaches to higher education. A team of two historians and one biologist has done this by developing a teaching model that infuses the humanities into two general science education courses through history lectures integrated with science labs. They assessed the model's impact on learning outcomes, experiences, and attitudes toward science and history through a blind study of student participants. The results showed that courses taught using the model significantly improved experiences and attitudes toward science among students who were initially less friendly toward science and improved experiences and attitudes toward history among students who were initially less friendly toward history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of history in science education has recently garnered wider interest owing to the heightened importance the Next Generation Science Standards (2012) has placed on conveying to students an understanding of the "nature of science." This essay strives to set this development in historical context by examining the changing role of the history of chemistry in chemical education over the last century. It focuses on two specific episodes: Edgar Fahs Smith's history of chemistry course at the University of Pennsylvania and James Bryant Conant's ultimately unsuccessful program at Harvard for general science education. The essay then compares these two episodes to the current emphasis on teaching the "nature of science" to students, arguing that using history to teach the "nature of science" distorts history in a manner that undermines the professional values of historians and suggesting that collaboration between historians and science educators is possible only when the professional interests of both are preserved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In May 1973 a new collaboration between NASA, the Indian Health Service, and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company promised to transform the way members of the Papago (now Tohono O'odham) Tribe of southern Arizona accessed modern medicine. Through a system of state-of-the-art microwave relays, slow-scan television links, and Mobile Health Units, the residents of the third-largest American Indian reservation began to access physicians remotely via telemedical encounters instead of traveling to distant hospitals. Examining the history of the STARPAHC (Space Technology Applied to Rural Papago Advanced Health Care) project from the perspective of NASA and its contractors, from the perspective of the Indian Health Service, and from the perspective of O'odham engineers and health professionals offers a new focus, emphasizing the American Indian reservation as a site of medical research and technological development in the late twentieth century, with specific attention to the promise of information technology to address health disparities and the role of American Indians as actors in the late twentieth-century history of science, technology, and medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay shows that comparable notions of humanism emerged independently in two twentieth-century scholars, Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and George Sarton (1884–1956). They met as young men at Harvard University and found themselves to be compatible thinkers. They both respected the so-called facts of science, perhaps more than theories in science. They saw their task as assembling these facts for a future synthesis. They recognized the diversity of the world's civilizations, and they actively participated in trying to unite scholars of good will. At the end of their lives, they remained optimistic about the future of humanity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay seeks to explain how Ashley Montagu, the American anthropologist, could have been both a cultural relativist and a biological determinist, two stances that seem to be opposites. The essay argues that the seeming contradiction can be resolved by placing Montagu in his historical contexts and by understanding what he meant by "biological determinism." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the late 1960s to the early 1980s, a team of U.S. political scientists and computer specialists designed an automated, computerized information system that could ostensibly forecast conflict earlier and more accurately than human analysts. Named the Crisis Early Warning and Monitoring System (EWAMS), it sought to bring international relations scholarship and U.S. national security policy—traditionally qualitative and interpretive domains—under the jurisdiction of a man–machine system. Drawing together the histories of social science, computing, and foreign policy, this essay argues that deep epistemic insecurities led social scientists to apply information technology to the production of policy knowledge. Computers, they hoped, could overcome the innate cognitive limitations that imperiled human decision making. By showing how social scientists’ computational zeal overshadowed their commitment to human agency, this essay also demonstrates that the history of science has an important role to play in contemporary debates about the implications of big data projects for knowledge and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: There are an estimated 1.9 million undocumented immigrants in the United States who came to the U.S. as children. Undocumented youths cannot work legally anywhere in the U.S., and state laws barring access to higher education further influence their social mobility. Theory suggests that social ties to teachers and other key individuals might provide a buffer against such a restrictive context, but we know little about how such ties form. This study explores how undocumented students access social capital embedded in ties to high school teachers and staff and why, at times, they do not. Method: We conducted in-depth phone interviews with 36 undocumented immigrants (ages 18-25) in South Carolina, a state that blocks undocumented immigrant access to higher education. All respondents were Latino/a immigrants. Results: Undocumented youths in our sample demonstrated determination and ingenuity in the face of a hostile receiving context. Yet, legal status had implications for attainment of their educational goals, as well as the availability and utility of support in high school. Although they incorporated socially in high school, undocumented students in this study encountered barriers to accessing the support they needed to transition to college. Conclusions: Local and state policy contexts are important for the social mobility and incorporation of undocumented immigrants. This study suggests that such laws can exacerbate barriers to developing social connections between undocumented students and school personnel, which might alter students' educational pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Use of safety strategies is increasing in United States schools due to increased media attention to school violence and maladaptive student behavior. Yet, relationships between the use of school safety strategies and school social work practice have not been adequately researched. This study examines relationships between school-level characteristics and types of safety strategies in schools where social workers are employed and how these strategies influence school social work practice. Method: We used data from 229 school social workers to explore the extent to which school-level variables predict the implementation of authoritarian and educational/therapeutic school safety strategies and examine how these strategies affect practitioners. Results: School size and education level are positively associated with the use of authoritarian strategies, and urbanicity and percentage of socioeconomically disadvantaged students enrolled are negatively associated with the use of educational/therapeutic strategies. Findings suggest that school social workers are affected in their practice by the types of safety strategies their schools implement. Conclusions: Implications call for social work practitioners to assess their schools' safety measures and their influence on students and school personnel when developing case conceptualizations. Practitioners should also evaluate the need for educational/therapeutic strategies and implement them accordingly, particularly in rural schools enrolling a greater percentage of socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Additional recommendations for school social work practice, education, and research are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay investigates the emergence of a profusion of lay and specialist literature in the late 1950s United States advocating on behalf of “gifted” and “academically talented” students. This call to reform schools around individual differences in “intelligence” was associated in its moment with the Sputnik crisis and the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA). The essay demonstrates, however, that the emergence of intensified interest in education for the “academically talented” was actually closely coterminous with Brown v. Board of Education and should also be understood in the context of early efforts to desegregate the public schools. It holds that a closer look at the NDEA—and a supporting body of literature working in tandem with it—reveals continuities in psychometric conceptions of “intelligence” and testing from the interwar period into the post–World War II era. This essay thus makes contributions to the historiographies of the Cold War, civil rights, psychometrics, and education in the 1950s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay investigates a hitherto-unexamined collaboration between two of the founders of modern history of science, Henry Guerlac and I. Bernard Cohen, and two economists, Paul Samuelson and Rupert Maclaurin. The arena in which these two disciplines came together was the Bowman Committee, one of the committees that prepared material for Vannevar Bush's Science--The Endless Frontier. The essay shows how their collaboration helped to shape the committee's recommendations, in which different models of science confronted each other. It then shows how, despite this success, the basis for long-term collaboration of economists and historians of science disappeared, because the resulting linear model of science and technology separated the study of scientific and economic progress into noncommunicating boxes . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United States Patent Office of the 1850s offers a rare opportunity to analyze the early gendering of science. In its crowded rooms, would-be scientists shared a workplace with women earning equal pay for equal work. Scientific men worked as patent examiners, claiming this new occupation as scientific in opposition to those seeking to separate science and technology. At the same time, in an unprecedented and ultimately unsuccessful experiment, female clerks were hired to work alongside male clerks. This article examines the controversies surrounding these workers through the lens of manners and deportment. In the unique context of a workplace combining scientific men and working ladies, office behavior revealed the deep assumption that the emerging American scientist was male and middle class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Using an example from the author's work on field science in the American West in the early twentieth century, this essay considers how structural constraints on the interactions between scientists and lay people in the field might be explained. Not only is there unusually abundant source evidence about a local ranching family living near a paleontological field site, but the Cooks were especially assertive in attempting to exert influence. This example functions as a thickly documented limiting case for testing the constraints on lay participation in field practice during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the early exploration and colonization of the Americas, Europeans encountered unfamiliar climates that challenged received ideas from classical geography. This experience drove innovative efforts to understand and explain patterns of weather and seasons in the New World. A close examination of three climatic puzzles (the habitability of the tropics, debates on the likelihood of a Northwest Passage, and the unexpectedly harsh weather in the first North American colonies) illustrates how sixteenth- and seventeenth-century observers made three intellectual breakthroughs: conceiving of climates as a distinct subject of inquiry, crossing the hitherto-separated disciplines of geography and meteorology, and developing new theories regarding the influence of prevailing winds on patterns of weather and seasons. While unquantified and unsystematic, these novel approaches promoted a new understanding of climates critical to the emergence of climate science. This study offers new insights into the foundations of climatology and the role of the New World in early modern science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the demise of introspective techniques in the early twentieth century, experimental psychology has largely assumed an administrative arrangement between experimenters and subjects wherein subjects respond to experimenters' instructions and experimenters meticulously constrain that relationship through experimental controls. During the postwar era this standard arrangement came to be questioned, initiating reflections that resonated with Cold War anxieties about the nature of the subjects and the experimenters alike. Albeit relatively short lived, these interrogations of laboratory relationships gave rise to unconventional testimonies and critiques of experimental method and epistemology. Researchers voiced serious concerns about the honesty and normality of subjects, the politics of the laboratory, and their own experimental conduct. Their reflective commentaries record the intimacy of subject and experimenter relations and the plentiful cultural materials that constituted the experimental situation, revealing the permeable boundaries between laboratory and everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A literary criticism of the book "Capital in the 21st Century," by Thomas Piketty and translated by Arthur Goldhammer is presented. Topics discussed include the importance of housing in the process of economic and industrial development, changes in capital composition, and impact of annual rental value of housing for the total national wealth in the U.S.