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The 2018 conservation status assessment of freshwater invertebrate taxa was the most comprehensive to date. Of the Threatened and At Risk taxa in 2018 (177 taxa), 48 were listed as Nationally Critical, 14 as Nationally Endangered, 16 as Nationally Vulnerable, 10 as Declining, and 89 as Naturally Uncommon. Most taxa were listed as either Not Threatened (315 taxa) or required more information for assessment (Data Deficient; 178 taxa). Analyses of temporal changes in conservation status since 2002 revealed that the majority of changes were due to greater understanding of taxa distributions, rather than gains or losses in population sizes or area of occupancy. Insufficient data on taxa distributions, along with a lack of autecological information, are two of the major knowledge gaps facing freshwater invertebrate conservation in New Zealand. Further impediments to conservation include (i) a lack of systematics research, (ii) a large number of species remain undiscovered and undescribed, and (iii) the status and trend of populations is unknown for most taxa. We also provide an analysis of the habitats that harbour many of the rarer taxa. Finally, we conclude by recommending a number of actions that should, collectively, help fill these knowledge gaps and address these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disentangling the meteorological and human drivers of drought is a critical challenge. A key difficulty is identifying natural conditions against which human impacts can be analysed. Here, a combination of approaches is used: a hydrological model is developed for an upstream unmodified location and is then applied to a downstream site subject to irrigation-related abstractions: i.e. an upstream–downstream/observation–model approach. The relative importance of climate change is also investigated. The study location (the Lindis River, New Zealand) has a continental climate, and the lower river frequently runs dry during summer. Output from the hydrological model indicates that despite the warm and dry summer conditions there is a substantial influence of abstractions on Lindis River low flows – without abstractions, dewatering would likely be rare rather than regular. Increases in precipitation associated with climate change could reduce the occurrence of dewatering, but this eventuality will be strongly influenced by water management strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Over the last 15 years, New Zealand led research on wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds (HRAP) has focused on ways to optimise pond performance, particularly with respect to nutrient removal and resource recovery (microalgal biomass production). The primary motivation for most of this research has been the need to cost-effectively improve wastewater treatment, particularly in small towns and rural communities, where wastewater treatment would otherwise be unaffordable. The ability to recover resources (water and nutrients) helps enable a circular bio-economy, through the reuse of these recovered resources in future products. New Zealand HRAP research has focused on 10 broad categories, including improving pond performance (nutrient removal and biomass yield), environmental impacts of HRAPs, pond design and operation, microalgal and zooplankton community composition and control, algal-based products, enhancing phosphorus removal, biomass harvesting and emerging contaminants. Research has been carried out at a range of scales, including mesocosm, pilot-scale and full-scale. Simple modification to how HRAPs are operated, such as culture depth, operating ponds in series, biomass recycling and night-time CO2 addition, have been shown to improve pond performance, particularly nutrient removal, biomass productivity, species dominance maintenance or zooplankton graze control. However, despite our improved understandings over the last 15 years, there are still a number of priorities for increasing HRAP performance, including effective CO2 addition at full-scale, improving phosphorus removal and reducing potential environmental impacts of HRAPs. Uptake of HRAP technology by local government bodies and industries is low and the reasons for this are not fully clear. Cost-effective and sustainable harvesting of the microalgal/bacterial biomass, to ensure effluent discharge meets total nutrient and total suspended solids load limits, is one barrier that must be overcome to allow greater uptake of this technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilisation of solar resources has become of utmost importance for the transition of the global, carbon intensive economy. In New Zealand the uptake of solar energy has increased substantially, but the relative contribution to the overall energy mix is still small. Previous research efforts on the solar resource across the country are revisited with improved satellite-modelled data from Solargis to derive a solar atlas for the country. A comparison is made with NIWA data, which shows that the modelled data are at an adequate level of accuracy and improves our understanding of the solar resource at an appropriate spatial and temporal resolution. The solar atlas makes available a commercial satellite data source and informs further investigations into how solar can, and will, play a more meaningful role in our transition to a low carbon future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand English is well-known for its heavy borrowing of words from Māori. This lexical component, unique to New Zealand English alone has been studied intensely over the last 50 years, particularly in newspaper media. Current research suggests the use is still increasing today, primarily in Māori-related contexts. Here, we analyse a surprising and unexpected use of Māori loanwords in science digital discourse (neither genre being previously investigated), where we discover a strong presence of Māori borrowings in National Science Challenge website and Twitter content. Using corpus linguistics methods, we argue that the use of Māori loanwords in this genre functions as a national identity building tool, used by various authors to signal that the 'challenges' the country faces are uniquely New Zealand's 'challenges'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of trophic status is fundamental to understanding the condition and function of lake ecosystems. We developed regression models to predict chlorophyll a concentrations (chl a) in New Zealand lakes for reference and current states, based on an existing dataset of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations for 1031 lakes. Models were then developed to predict Secchi depth based on chl a and a sediment resuspension term applicable to shallow lakes. Estimates of all four Trophic Level Index (TLI) variables (chl a, TN, TP and Secchi depth) were analysed to estimate reference and current state TLI for the nationally representative sample of 1031 lakes. There was a trend of eutrophication between reference and current states, with systematic differences among lake geomorphic types. Mean chl a increased 3.5-fold (2.42 mg m−3 vs. 8.32 mg m−3) and mean Secchi depth decreased (indicating lower clarity) by approximately one-third (9.62 m vs. 6.48 m) between reference and current states. On average, TLI increased by 0.67, with the TLI increase >1 in approximately one-third (31%) of lakes. This study informs the status of lake ecosystems in NZ and provides benchmarks to guide management and assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We test the paradigm that in a future warmer ocean, shallower winter mixing will lead to less net primary production (NPP), by investigating whether warming between 2002 and 2018 led to changes in NPP in the Tasman Sea/New Zealand region. The 2002–18 trend in sea surface temperature (SST) was positive over most of the region, and was driven by increasingly warmer summers and marine heat waves (MHWs) rather than year-round warming. In contrast, the trends in sea surface chlorophyll (SSC) and NPP were generally positive over the Subtropical Front (STF) and in a subtropical band north-east of New Zealand, but negative elsewhere. Regressions between SSC and SST, and between spring SSC and the coldest SST during the preceding winter, show similar spatial patterns to the SSC trend. We suggest these findings reflect different ecosystem functioning in the subtropical and subantarctic biomes that are separated by the STF. We conclude that any future warming is likely to lead to less production in the Tasman Sea, but more production over the STF. Three recent MHWs had different impacts on production, but generally led to less surface biomass north of the STF and more biomass south of the front. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We model the extent to which age-targeted protective sequestration can be used to reduce ICU admissions caused by novel coronavirus COVID-19. Using demographic data from New Zealand, we demonstrate that lowering the age threshold to 50 years of age reduces ICU admissions drastically and show that for sufficiently strict isolation protocols, sequestering one-third of the countries population for a total of 8 months is sufficient to avoid overwhelming ICU capacity throughout the entire course of the epidemic. Similar results are expected to hold for other countries, though some minor adaption will be required based on local age demographics and hospital facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The earliest concerns New Zealand farmers had about ticks are chronicled here, together with the eventual invasion and establishment of Haemaphysalis longicornis, which, still today, remains the only livestock tick parasite in this country. Early attempts, legislative and practical, to restrict the spread of the tick, and later attempts to manage a permanent problem are presented and discussed. Brief biographies of many of the main persons mentioned in this history are presented in an Appendix, as is a reconsideration of how the tick may have arrived. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development and implementation of tracking technology, we are now able to monitor the foraging behaviour of seabirds while at sea. Time-Depth Recorders (TDRs) were fitted to Hutton's shearwaters (Puffinus huttoni), an endangered endemic New Zealand species, to measure how diving behaviour varies over the breeding cycle. Hutton's shearwaters (∼350 g) dive up to 339 times per day (average 68.8) at depths to 35 m (average 5.6 m), and for periods up to 60 s (average 19.2 s). Incubating birds dived deeper than birds feeding chicks, and a significant difference in diving depth and dive duration were detected at different times of the day. Neither dive frequency nor dive duration differed significantly between years, but there was some annual variation in dive depths. The temporal variation we observed in the diving behaviour of Hutton's shearwaters suggests they are likely to exploit different types of pelagic prey at different stages in their breeding cycle. With on-going changes in the marine environment, monitoring changes in feeding behaviour using TDRs may provide a way to assess environmental change and improve the conservation of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predation by introduced mammals frequently limits abundance of New Zealand's native invertebrates. We investigated responses of beetle and wētā communities to mammal eradication at two fenced forest sites at Maungatautari. Ground-dwelling beetle abundance, but not species richness, increased inside the southern exclosure two years after all mammals were eradicated. In the next 5 years, when all mammals except mice were eradicated from all of Maungatautari, beetle abundance and species richness were frequently higher in the mouse-free southern exclosure. Beetle community composition changed after mammal eradication, and over time with increasing mice densities outside the southern exclosure. Large, predatory, and native beetles showed the most differences between inside and outside the southern exclosure over some years. Wētā were more responsive to mammal removal than beetles. Wētā abundances both inside and outside the southern exclosure were similar when most mammals were eradicated and mice were controlled to low numbers. However, wētā declined in the following 2 years outside the southern exclosure when mouse abundance increased. Abiotic and biotic factors affecting the beetle and wētā communities are complex and interactions poorly understood. This study indicates that climate and predation by native fauna are likely to be important factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Opioids have been implicated to induce infertility. Although codeine remains the most used opioid for recreational purpose, no study has documented its effect on sperm quality. Elucidating the effect of codeine on sperm cells and the associated mechanisms may provide an insight into preventing drug-induced sperm damage. Twenty-one New Zealand white rabbits were randomized into three groups; control and codeine-treated. The codeine-treated groups received either 4 or 10mg/kg b.w of codeine for six weeks. Results: Codeine treatment led to significant decrease in sperm count, motility, viability, normal morphology, and sperm membrane integrity. This was associated with significant rise in sperm DNA fragmentation, oxidative damage, and caspase 3 activity. The percentage of sperm DNA fragmentation correlates positively with 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage, and caspase 3 activity, a biomarker of apoptosis. The observed correlation was stronger between sperm DNA fragmentation and oxidative DNA damage than sperm DNA fragmentation and caspase 3 activity. Conclusion: This study revealed that chronic codeine exposure causes sperm DNA fragmentation and poor sperm quality primarily via oxidative stress rather than activation of caspase 3-dependent apoptosis. Findings of the present study may explain drug-induced male factor infertility, particularly, those associated with opioid use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The March 15th terrorist attack started a national dialogue about prejudice in New Zealand. Previous research has investigated attitudes towards Muslims in comparison to ethnic minorities. However, presently, there are no nationally representative studies in New Zealand systematically comparing attitudes to Muslims with attitudes to other religious groups. Here, we present evidence from the New Zealand edition of the International Social Survey Programme module on religion, a national postal survey (N = 1335) collected between September 2018 and February 2019. We assess perceived threat and negativity towards Christians, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and Atheists. We find substantially greater perceived threat and negativity towards Muslims compared with other groups. In particular, older people, New Zealand Europeans, men, and those with more right-wing attitudes report greater threat and negativity towards Muslims. In line with previous studies, higher religious identification and higher education predict greater acceptance. Taken collectively, these results reveal that the Muslim Acceptance Gap in this country is substantial, and greater challenges for acceptance are evident among lower-educated, right-wing, older, secular, and male populations. The magnitude of this gap reveals a substantial challenge to the future of New Zealand where religious and secular people can live without evoking prejudice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article looks at two periods in the history of white supremacy in New Zealand: the short-lived explosion of skinhead groups in the 1990s, and the contemporary rise of the internet-driven alt-right. It looks at the similarities and differences between the two groups, looking at style, symbols, ideology, and behaviour. It looks at the history of these two movements in New Zealand and compares the economic and social factors that contributed to their rise, in particular how the different social class of members produced groups with near-identical ideology but radically different presentation and modes of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocellularia (Graphidaceae) is a genus of crustose lichens comprising c.200 species, four known from Australia and New Zealand. Based on recent collections from northern North Island, we describe a fifth species Ocellularia jacinda-arderniae, which is a member of the O. bicuspidata complex. This complex is characterised by peculiar, appendiculate ascospores and a psoromic acid chemistry. Two further undescribed species of this complex, one from North Island and one from South Island, are discussed but left undescribed pending further study. Based on our findings, we provide a revised assessment of New Zealand Ocellularia. Of the four species included in the most recent Flora of New Zealand Lichens from 2007, three do not belong in that genus and the identification of the fourth is incorrect; instead, the following four taxa are recognised: O. jacinda-arderniae, O. aff. dolichotata, O. aff. bicuspidata (a) (South Island; OTA 58820) and O. aff. bicuspidata (b) (North Island; UNITEC 10818). This leads to the somewhat unusual situation that a presumably known genus biota in New Zealand is entirely replaced by names of a new species and three provisional identifications. The following new combination is introduced: Schizotrema concentricum (Stirt.) Lücking comb. nov. In addition, the name Thelotrema manosporum (C. Knight.) Hellb. is given as the correct name for the New Zealand taxon previously identified as T. monosporum Nyl., and the name T. monosporoides Nyl. [syn.: O. monosporoides (Nyl.) Hale] is established as a taxonomic synonym of T. manosporum, leaving two New Zealand species of Thelotrema with large, brown ascospores, namely T. manosporum and T. saxatile C. Knight. The situation of the genus Ocellularia highlights the need for detailed taxonomic revision of understudied lichen groups in New Zealand, especially as these and related genera in the Graphidaceae are excellent indicators of forest health and can be used for monitoring purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probiotics for preventing illness or improving health have become increasingly popular with consumers, researchers, and producers, both dairy companies and alternative medicine providers. They are widely available in foods such as yoghurt and as freeze dried capsules. They are used both for their general health effects on the gut including reducing travellers and antibiotic related diarrhoea. Their most important and best researched use is in the treatment of necrotising enterocolitis in premature babies where they reduce incidence, severity and mortality. The ultimate 'probiotic' mixture might be healthy human faeces which have been used for transplantation in patients with antibiotic resistant Clostridioides difficile infections with some success. Studies of allergy prevention using probiotics have shown mixed results. In New Zealand however, a specific strain of Lactobacillus rhamnosus (HN001) given from birth for two years has been shown to reduce the prevalence of allergic disease in infants throughout childhood. Further studies have shown a reduction in gestational diabetes amongst mothers who consume the probiotic during pregnancy. An important feature of the clinical use of probiotics is that different strains within the same species may have very different effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National assessments have highlighted that urban streams have some of the poorest water quality in New Zealand, yet there has been no analysis focussing on these streams. In this study we defined urban streams as >15% catchment urban land cover and used monitoring data to assess several indicators of water quality including dissolved metals, nutrients, bacteria and the macroinvertebrate community index. We investigated associations between the indicators and urban land cover, imperviousness and geographic location. Water quality was highly variable, within and between monitored sites; and invariably poor when compared to water quality criteria. Dissolved zinc was positively related to the proportion of urban land cover and imperviousness in the upstream catchment. There were significant differences in ammoniacal-N, nitrate-N, turbidity, MCI, dissolved zinc and E. coli between geographic locations. The analysis indicates that if urban development continues in its current form, increases in urban land cover around New Zealand can be expected to result in further declines in water quality and a reduced likelihood that water quality objectives will be achieved at impacted locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental sustainability and the long-term wellbeing of Māori (the indigenous people of New Zealand) are interdependent and degradation of landscapes risks the progressive degradation of Māori wellbeing. The present study developed an analysis framework based on Ki Uta Ki Tai (holistic-mountains to the sea- management philosophy advocated by Ngāi Tahu) for exploring relationships between landcover and Māori values to enable predictions of cultural values through space and time. We used this framework to predict how two Māori values (Overall Health and Cultural Land Use) have been altered as a result of landcover change between 2001–2012 in three Canterbury catchments. The area of native vegetation declined while exotic pasture increased between 2001–2012, and there were corresponding declines in both cultural health scores. These results suggest that the change in landcover has reduced the ability of the landscape to support Māori values. This framework for assessing changes in Māori values with respect to changing environmental conditions may identify opportunities for Māori to better engage in land use management decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Degradation of aquatic ecosystems by fine sediment is a global environmental problem, and damages reflect particle properties as well as mass concentration. We studied sediment-related water quality (SRWQ) of small streams in hill-country near Whatawhata, NZ, that have been monitored since 1995. In 2001, an integrated catchment management (ICM) plan was implemented in the Mangaotama (originally sheep-beef) catchment – including conversion of steep headwaters to pine plantation, cattle exclusion, and native riparian plantings. The long-term SRWQ within the Mangaotama catchment was examined with reference to a nearby native-forested control catchment. Correlations between visual clarity, suspended particulate matter concentration and related variables were moderate to fairly strong. The ICM has not improved SRWQ as expected – plausibly because removal of cattle disturbance has been offset by decline in pasture ground cover under increasing shade of tree plantings. Worsening SRWQ is expected over the next several decades as channels widen towards a 'forest' morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The planting of degraded land with tree plantations may be effective at improving land use sustainability and profitability but it can also have significant effects on stream hydrology. In this paired catchment study, we report the stream hydrological response to partial (62%) afforestation of a steep pastoral catchment in the western Waikato Region, North Island, New Zealand. We comprehensively analyse the hydrological regime changes over a 23-year period (including eight years before pine planting) with reference to a native-forested 'control' catchment. Our results show that afforestation has markedly affected stream hydrology. Seven years after planting, the total annual runoff was 380 mm lower than predicted for the catchment in pasture. Two phases of plantation thinning resulted in the difference between measured and predicted runoff reducing to only 129 mm. Peak flows reduced by ∼50% while total stormflow reduced by ∼30% – which we attribute to canopy interception attenuating and delaying water yield. The impact of plantation establishment on low flows is not so clear, although afforestation appears to have reduced low flows by ∼25%. This study provides information on the hydrological impact of afforestation within a hitherto poorly-represented New Zealand environment (i.e. high rainfall, sedimentary lithology-based, North Island hill country). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To meet the challenges of preventing and reversing adverse effects of land use on ecosystems, management actions need to be founded on strong evidence. We used the pressure-state-impact (PSI) framework to assess evidence of land-use effects on New Zealand freshwater ecosystems. The evidence consisted of published quantitative and categorical associations linking land-use pressures to state changes and ecological impacts in rivers, lakes and aquifers. There was substantial evidence of land-use effects, particularly where land use/land cover (LULC) classes were used as pressure variables. Proportions of catchment area in urban and pastoral LULC were consistently, positively correlated with contaminant levels in water bodies and negatively correlated with ecological-health indicators. Other consistent PSI associations included positive correlations between cattle stocking rates and river contaminant levels, increased fine sediment and decreased ecological-health scores in rivers following forest harvest, and increased river contaminant levels at sites with stock access. Despite these consistent associations, the evidence base has four general shortcomings that should be addressed: (1) inadequate integration of data and models that link land use and contaminant loss to state changes and impacts in freshwater ecosystems; (2) weak inferences based on LULC; (3) reliance on categorical PSI associations; (4) gaps in reported PSI associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) inhibitors such as haloxyfop, pinoxaden and clethodim selectively control grass weed species in many types of crop. Here, we characterised two populations of Lolium multiflorum (Italian ryegrass), R and RV, from South Canterbury and Central Otago respectively, that were suspected to be resistant to ACCase-inhibiting herbicides. Based on 50% reduction in biomass (GR50), in two dose–response experiments, both populations were highly resistant to haloxyfop with resistance factors (RF) >400 times, but resistance to pinoxaden was low (RF of 2). Furthermore, population R was found to be moderately resistant to clethodim (RF >4, based on 50% reduction in survival (LD50)), but population RV had RFs barely greater than 1, based on GR50. Gene sequencing showed that the same target site mutation (Ile-2041-Asn) was associated with resistance to the three herbicides in both populations. The zygosity of the resistance alleles in the plants tested could cause the differences in resistance to clethodim observed between the populations, even though they carried the same mutation. This is the first report of the mechanism of resistance to ACCase-inhibiting herbicides in Italian ryegrass from New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) is an important legume in dryland hill pastures in New Zealand. In this environment plants adapt to low temperatures (<10°C) through a series of physiological mechanisms, such as the foliar biosynthesis of pigments, to protect vulnerable tissues. The biosynthesis of anthocyanins is one of the most important physiological responses for cold acclimation in plants. In this study we investigated anthocyanin concentration by accessing leaf reddening in 14 cultivars from three subspecies (yanninicum, brachycalycinum or subterraneum) during winter growth. The effect of anthocyanin production on spring herbage productivity was further quantified in the field and in the glasshouse. Leaf concentration of anthocyanins increased 10-fold as a consequence of cold exposure (mean daily air temperature was below ∼7°C) in red leaves compared with green leaves. There were large cultivar differences with yanninicum ssp. cultivars having the highest leaf reddening at >60%. Lowest values were observed in 'Antas' (brachycalycinum ssp.) and 'Denmark' (subterraneum spp.) at <20% of leaf reddening. Australian subterraneum ssp. cultivars had 13% higher leaf reddening values than Italian cultivars. Leaf reddening was a temporary, cold induced, anthocyanin response that did not affect subsequent subterranean clover plant growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand pastoral productivity relies heavily on biological nitrogen (N) fixation from rhizobia bacteria. Cadmium (Cd), present in pasture soils as an impurity in phosphate fertilisers, may have toxic effects on both plant growth and rhizobia activity. Effects of Cd on growth of seedlings of a white clover cultivar 'Grasslands Tribute', in the absence and presence of the N2-fixing Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii strain TA1, were assessed in vermiculite microcosm assays. The lowest observable effect concentrations resulting in significantly lower white clover shoot weights than those grown without Cd were 0.07 mg Cd kg−1 (measured as Ca(NO3)2-extractable Cd, Cdextractable) in the absence of Rhizobium, and 2.33 mg Cdextractable kg−1 for Rhizobium-inoculated seedlings. Shoot N content was unaffected in white clover exposed to <5 mg Cdextractable kg−1. The results indicate symbiosis with Rhizobium strain TA1 conferred tolerance to white clover 'Grasslands Tribute' against Cd toxicity, and that this symbiosis is unlikely to be adversely affected by Cd concentrations reported (<0.003 mg Cdextractable kg−1) in New Zealand pasture soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In New Zealand, a commonly sown pasture combination is perennial ryegrass with white clover. The hydrothermal time model (HTT) was used to quantify germination under different temperature (T) and water potential (WP) conditions for white clover 'Nomad' and perennial ryegrass 'Stellar AR1'. Seeds were germinated in vitro under a range of T × WP combinations, and HTT models were fitted to germination time course data. Rapid germination of white clover under optimum T and WP was reflected by a much lower value for its HTT constant compared with perennial ryegrass (10.8 vs 80.7 MPa °C d). However, the lower base water potential for perennial ryegrass (−1.29 vs −0.495 MPa) and a higher threshold temperature for thermoinhibition (21.8 vs 18.3°C), meant that predicted perennial ryegrass germination was more resilient in warm dry conditions. HTT models can be used to assist decisions about the timing of perennial ryegrass and white clover sowing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ryegrass is the primary pasture crop in New Zealand; however, despite this importance, gains in yield through conventional breeding have been marginal. Other significant crops, particularly maize and rice, have benefited from hybrid breeding programmes whereby heterosis has been exploited. Ryegrass presents many challenges to breeders wishing to produce F1 hybrid progeny on a large scale such as self-incompatibility, inbreeding depression, and a lack of genetic tools for creating and maintaining male-sterile lines for crossing. Many of these challenges have been overcome in other species, providing a basis for addressing them in ryegrass. With the advent of new technologies such as CRISPR gene editing and the genome sequence for ryegrass, F1 hybrid production is now possible on a large scale. Regulations in New Zealand surrounding new genetic tools are a hurdle which must be addressed to allow the agricultural industry in New Zealand to apply these advanced technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seedlings of kale cultivars in New Zealand are highly susceptible to direct feeding by the wheat bug Nysius huttoni (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), an endemic insect pest. Two assays (choice and no-choice) were conducted to compare the relative susceptibility of seedlings of the six most popular kale cultivars in New Zealand (Kestrel, Gruner, Sovereign, Regal, Corka and Coleor). The earliest occurrence of feeding damage in the choice assay was on cv. Kestrel, significantly earlier than on Corka and Gruner. In the no-choice assay, significantly more wheat bugs were found on Kestrel than on Corka. Damage to Kestrel occurred significantly earlier than on all the other cultivars except Corka. Reduction in plant dry weight was significantly higher on Coleor and Kestrel. These results are important for developing integrated pest management protocols for kale pests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of bat species is commonly determined by placing acoustic bat detectors that record bat echolocation calls in the habitat they are likely to use. Detection rates are affected by variables including type of detection unit used. We compared detection rates of long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) echolocation calls between two types of automated bat detectors: Wildlife Acoustics SMZC Zero Crossing Bat Recorders (ZC), and Frequency Compression Automated Bat Monitoring units (FC) produced by New Zealand's Department of Conservation. Units were placed in locations where bats were known to be present, but not all detected bats. The median number of bat passes recorded by FC units over 10 nights was 20 compared with a median of 3 bat passes for ZC units. ZC units also detected bats over significantly fewer nights than FC units. These results suggest FC units are more sensitive and therefore better to use where long-tailed bats are expected to be at low abundance or only present infrequently. Because of inconsistencies in detection rates, we recommend the use of only one model of the detector within a monitoring project. Our data also suggests that surveys should take place over long periods to maximise likelihood of detecting bats, if present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One new genus and ten new species of antipatharian corals are described from the New Zealand region. Differential diagnoses are given and comparisons are made to related nominal species. Described as new is the genus Acanthosaropathes and the following species: Antipathes coronata, A. dicrocrada, A. polyhedra, Acanthosaropathes uniseriata, Phanopathes ctenocrada, Cupressopathes simplex, Stylopathes stenotes, Stauropathes stellata, Telopathes tasmaniensis, and Heteropathes intricata. This research highlights the diversity of deepsea corals for the region, improves knowledge of the distributional limits of species, which in turn can inform assessments of species prevalence for conservation initiatives and management decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In New Zealand horticulture there is a widely-held opinion that target soil test P (Olsen P) values increase with soil anion storage capacity (ASC) – an idea that arose in the 1986 Fertiliser Recommendations of Wood et al. with little supporting evidence. We report a direct test of whether ASC influences plant response to soil Olsen P. This was carried out with three soils of different ASC values (14%, 75% and 92%) under glasshouse conditions where supply of other nutrients was not limiting. For each soil we generated samples with 10 different Olsen P values. These were then used to grow spring onion (Allium fistolosum L.) in 0.25-L containers kept moist with P-free nutrient solution. The Olsen P values ranged from 3 to 51 μg g−1. Plant growth varied strongly with soil Olsen P, but regression slopes for plant mass on Olsen P showed no differences associated with ASC. A further analysis filtered out possible effects of variations in pH and the mass of soil in each pot. Again this indicated no influence of ASC on plant responsiveness to Olsen P. Our results suggest caution in using the 1986 recommendations for determining application rates of P fertiliser for vegetables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informally testing the fit of a probability distribution model is educationally a desirable precursor to formal methods for senior secondary school students. Limited research on how to teach such an informal approach, lack of statistically sound criteria to enable drawing of conclusions, as well as New Zealand assessment requirements led to this study. Focusing on the Poisson distribution, the criteria used by ten Grade 12 teachers for informally testing the fit of a probability distribution model was investigated using an online task-based interview procedure. It was found that criteria currently used by the teachers were unreliable as they could not correctly assess model fit, in particular, sample size was not taken into account. The teachers then used an interactive goodness of fit simulation-based visual inference tool (GFVIT) developed by the first author to determine if the teachers developed any new understandings about goodness of fit. After using GFVIT teachers reported a deeper understanding of model fit and that the tool had allowed them to take into account sample size when testing the fit of the probability distribution model through the visualization of expected distributional shape variation. Hence, a new informal test for the fit of a probability distribution is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pilosella officinarum is a serious adventive weed in New Zealand. It has also proven to be highly invasive in other countries. The areas infested are typically extensive rangelands for which expensive control measures would be hard to justify economically. However, it has been known for many years that species of this genus are particularly sensitive to the concentration of boron in the soil. The application of boron fertilisers is now a common practice to control P. officinarum infestations in the extensively grazed tussock grasslands in Central Otago. The farmers seek to exploit the differences in boron tolerance between P. officinarum and the exotic pasture species which farmers would like to establish in its place. However, there are large tracts of infested land for which the aim is the restoration of the native vegetation for water harvesting, aesthetic or conservation reasons. This study examines the effect of boron application (as ulexite) on the native species of the tussock grasslands flora. At the application rates recommended for P. officinarum control none of the native species was adversely affected by the added ulexite. Doubling the recommended application rates affected some but not all of the native species. The results suggest that the use of boron in this manner is unlikely to have any adverse effect on conservation values in tussock grassland, whether grazed or retired. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of New Zealanders (approximately 80%) born in the 1970s report using cannabis at least once, despite its illegal status. Four-10% of past-year users were at risk of developing a cannabis dependence syndrome that impaired psychological, social and/or occupational functioning. There were negative psychiatric consequences for a subset of the population who began using cannabis in early/mid-adolescence, particularly in terms of developing psychosis (the risk appeared to be highest for those with a genetic predisposition), and to a lesser degree for depression. There was a consistent dose–response relation between increasing levels of, and/or persistence of cannabis use and a range of deleterious health outcomes including loss of cognitive capacity, increased respiratory symptoms and impaired lung function, periodontal disease, compromised educational achievement and employment history, as well as a host of negative social outcomes (e.g. criminal convictions, relationship difficulties, driving impairment). No discernable impacts upon cardiovascular function were observed. The majority of cannabis users did so with little or no harm. In contrast, a non-trivial minority of the population (approximately 5%–10%) were at heightened risk because they: (i) used cannabis on more days than not; (ii) had become cannabis dependent; or (iii) began using cannabis during mid-adolescence and persisted well into adulthood. Implications are discussed with respect to the 2020 referendum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epichloë fungal endophytes that systemically colonise cool-season grasses have become an internationally well-researched symbiosis. While sexual species of Epichloë can cause choke disease of grass seed heads, asexual forms are symptomless endophytes that colonise embryos to become seed transmitted. In mutualistic associations, the grass benefits through greater tolerance of abiotic and biotic stresses. In New Zealand, at least 12 species of naturalised and native grasses have been documented as infected with a range of asexual or sexual Epichloë. The impact of endophyte-infected ryegrass and tall fescue has been significant for pastoral farmers, with Epichloë enhancing pasture performance. Production of bioactive secondary metabolites reduces herbivory by invertebrate pests but some are also toxic to grazing animals. Selected strains of Epichloë have been utilised to reduce livestock problems while retaining improved pasture performance. Documented Epichloë-infected native grasses are rare, justifying greater efforts of discovery, description and conservation as taonga (a treasure) for Māori and all New Zealanders. Given their ecological success in New Zealand ecosystems, along with economic and environmental benefits, there are good prospects to further develop both endemic and naturalised Epichloë-grass associations that may benefit other cool-season grasses and potentially deliver new beneficial properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allopolyploids arise when two or more species hybridise to form an entirely new species with a duplicated genome. Although initially met with an array of potentially catastrophic challenges triggered by the combination of two diverged parental subgenomes within a single cell, countless allopolyploids worldwide demonstrate exceptional biological resilience by not only living under these unique circumstances, but thriving. The archipelago of Aotearoa New Zealand is home to an unexpectedly large number of allopolyploid species, both indigenous and introduced. Here, we review the prevalence and importance of these species from a local perspective. The benefits of allopolyploid species permeate multiple facets of life in New Zealand, from pastoral health and arable crop yield, to long-established viticulture and brewery practices, to the intrinsic nature of the land through the presence of diverse native allopolyploid flora. Consequently, the motivation behind the pursuit of New Zealand's allopolyploid research extends beyond improvement of the global knowledgebase and also aims to drive tangible economic and cultural impacts on the country and the lives of its people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining the genetic structure and population dynamics of harvested species are key aspects of effective fisheries management. New Zealand scampi (Metanephrops challengeri) is a species of nethropid lobster that supports a commercial fishery on the continental shelf and slope around New Zealand. To determine the genetic structure and historical population demography of New Zealand scampi, we sequenced a 623 base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit one (CO1) from 321 individuals across six widely separated sites off the coast of mainland New Zealand and the subantarctic Auckland Islands, representing much of the species' distribution. The Auckland Islands population was found to be genetically distinct from all other sampled populations, potentially resulting from an absence of continuous suitable habitat between the central-eastern South Island and the Auckland Islands. An isolation-by-distance pattern of genetic structure was also detected. With the exception of the Mercury Islands, all sampled populations showed signs of recent population expansion, potentially linked to changes in habitat availability during the glacial-interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene. We recommend that the current NZ scampi management areas and harvesting rates for each remain unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The length-frequency distribution of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) was studied on the east coast of NZ using passive acoustic recorders moored offshore of Kaikoura, Cape Palliser and Castlepoint. Sperm whale's echolocation signals are unique among odontocete species. Their clicks are composed by multiple pulses resulting from the sound transmission within the whale head. The total length of the whales can be estimated by measuring the time delay between these pulses. A total of 997 length measurements were obtained from click trains using cepstral analysis (mean = 14.6 m; min = 9.6 m; max = 18.3 m; std = 1 m). The size-frequency distributions at all three locations were similar, although animals smaller than 12 m were not present offshore of Kaikoura. Animals of various sizes appeared to be present all year round, with no apparent seasonality in the occurrence of any size class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is an important component of many recreational opportunities and New Zealand invests significant resources in recreational water quality (RWQ) monitoring to assess risks to public health. However, monitoring primarily focuses on microbiological hazards and RWQ is considerably broader than this. The goal of this study was to take a comprehensive approach to evaluating RWQ while exploring the potential for greater public involvement in monitoring. A popular river swimming site was co-monitored weekly by volunteers and a council field officer. The attributes monitored–water temperature, visual clarity, benthic cyanobacteria and filamentous periphyton cover, E. coli and rubbish–were identified from a volunteer workshop. There was good concordance between volunteer and council data suggesting that volunteer measurements can be considered reliable. This highlights the potential for volunteers, with professional support, including training and quality assurance, to extend council RWQ surveillance to additional monitoring sites while improving public engagement on water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I summarised cadmium concentrations from soil samples collected by the fertiliser industry between 2006 and 2015, and from soil samples collected by regional councils. Using these data, a statistical model was used to estimate soil cadmium concentrations on agricultural land within each territorial authority. Across New Zealand, most territorial authorities (56 of 66), including all the South Island, had mean soil cadmium concentrations below 0.6 mg Cd/kg. The highest mean soil cadmium values on agricultural land were in the Otorohanga and Matamata-Piako districts (0.90 and 0.89 mg Cd/kg, respectively). In these districts, around 1% of properties were estimated to have mean soil cadmium in excess of 1.8 mg Cd/kg. The fertiliser industry requires that cadmium concentrations in phosphate fertiliser are below a voluntary limit of 280 mg/kg P. The mean cadmium concentration in fertiliser samples taken between 2003 and 2015 was 184 mg Cd/kg P, 66% of the voluntary limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Illthrift, defined as low body condition score (BCS), is a problem in adult ewes on many farms in New Zealand, and nematode parasites are often considered a significant contributing factor. Here we test the hypothesis that, over the lambing-lactation period, parasites are a significant causal factor in ewe illthrift, and that anthelmintic administration to low BCS ewes results in a greater improvement in condition than treatment of other ewes. Faecal nematode egg count (FEC) prior to lambing and ewe liveweight change over the study period were poorly correlated, and both were independent of pre-lambing BCS, as was ewe response to anthelmintic treatment. Some ewes lost, or gained, considerable amounts of weight independent of their BCS, the number and size of lambs reared, and anthelmintic treatment. We find no evidence that ewes of low BCS have higher FECs, or a larger response to anthelmintic treatment than ewes in better condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pselaphotumulus Owens and Carlton, gen. nov., is described as the sixth genus in the tribe Pselaphini known from New Zealand. Three new species are described: Pselaphotumulus aorerei, sp. nov., Pselaphotumulus dubius, sp. nov. and Pselaphotumulus unus, sp. nov.. Three species, Pselaphus cavelli (Broun 1893), Pselaphus oviceps (Broun 1917) and Pselaphus urquharti (Broun 1917) are transferred to Pselaphotumulus, nov. combs. Lectotypes from type series in the New Zealand Broun Collection (Natural History Museum, London) are designated for these three species. Habitus photographs, distributional maps and line drawings of diagnostic characters are provided for each species. A key to species is provided. Searches of museum collections have not yielded representatives outside of New Zealand, suggesting that this is the first endemic genus in the tribe Pselaphini described from the New Zealand's main islands, specifically, the South Island. Pselaphotumulus species exhibit restricted distribution patterns that approximately coincide with the Pacific/Indo Australian Plate boundary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potent second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides such as brodifacoum have been used as more effective alternatives to first-generation anticoagulants, such as warfarin. A combination of diphacinone at 0.005% and cholecalciferol at 0.06% produces a slow-acting bait that is effective at killing possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) and rodents. Cage trials with groups of possums and ship rats (Rattus rattus) achieved a mortality of 87% and 86% for possums and ship rats, respectively. Two field trials, each 200 hectares in size, targeting possums, ship rats and mice achieved an average reduction in the abundance of 94% for possums, 94% for ship rats and 80% for mice. The combination of diphacinone and cholecalciferol appears effective and has a favourable risk profile compared with second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides, such as brodifacoum. Approval of this new bait by the New Zealand Environmental Protection Agency was granted in 2018 and final registration obtained from the Ministry of Primary Industries in 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of zinc (Zn) fertiliser to soil has been proposed as a mitigation strategy to decrease plant cadmium (Cd) concentrations. The strategy is untested in New Zealand and it is unclear whether it is effective in soils that are not Zn deficient. We undertook a glasshouse experiment and measured what effect applying Zn had on Cd concentrations in spinach (Spinacia olearacea L.) cultivated in a soil with a high extractable Zn concentration (7.3 mg kg−1) and total Cd concentration of 0.48 mg kg−1. The addition of 5–20 kg Zn ha−1 as zinc sulphate decreased Cd concentrations in spinach leaves after 64 days growth by 19–28% and in roots by up to 42%. In contrast, the addition of Zn increased Zn concentrations in spinach roots and leaves by 55% and 112% respectively. The decrease in Cd concentrations in spinach was likely a result of competition with Zn that restricted Cd uptake into the root. The results indicate there may be potential in using Zn fertiliser to decrease plant Cd concentrations. However, investigation needs to be undertaken to evaluate its effectiveness for soil types with different properties and Zn status, other food crops which may respond differently to spinach and the results confirmed in a field experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this study were to compare the NZ Indices of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) with the NZDep index of socioeconomic deprivation in terms of their: (1) theoretical and methodological approaches; (2) use of small areas; (3) rankings of small areas; and (4) relationships with various health and social outcomes. Literature sources were reviewed for aim 1. The data sources for aims 2–4, all contained within Statistics New Zealand's Integrated Data Infrastructure, were: (1) 2013 Census, (2) health data sets, (3) Police database, and (4) 2014 General Social Survey. Outcomes were smoking, mortality, respiratory disease, crime, self-assessed health status. Spearman's rho was used as a measure of correlation. Deciles were treated as categorical in the stepwise logistic regressions. The key finding is that there is a range of theoretical and methodological differences between the indexes. Despite these differences, the indexes behave in a similar, but not identical, manner in their ranking of small areas and in their associations with health and social outcomes. In conclusion, for practical purposes for many applications the two indexes give similar results when analysing very large data sets, although there are some important caveats related to this conclusion for both large and small data sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Communication assistance' is a term that derives from section 80 of the Evidence Act 2006: a legislative provision that has given birth to a whole new profession in the New Zealand legal system. This legislative provision has been used to appoint a new role: that of the communication assistant to support complainants, witnesses and defendants of all ages with identified communication needs. This study focuses specifically on the provision of communication assistance for young people who offend in the New Zealand criminal justice system. It provides a qualitative analysis of professionals' descriptions (n = 28 participants) of communication assistance for this population in justice processes. The findings illustrate that communication assistance shares its core with a similar role in England and Wales, that of the intermediary, but that communication assistants in New Zealand have broader scope than their counterparts working in the area of youth justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The use of contraception in Lao PDR remains inadequate. In 2017, unmet contraception needs among married women aged 15--49 were 14.3% in Lao PDR overall and 18.6% in the province of Savannakhet. Although the government has a goal to reduce gender inequalities, they still persist in many areas. Objective: The aim of this research was to understand the extent to which couples' dynamics and gender attitudes affect contraception use in Savannakhet, Lao PDR. Methods: To conduct this research, mixed methods were used. Quantitative methods took the form of a survey filled out by 200 married couples in the province of Savannakhet. Afterwards, focus group discussions were carried out to give meaning to the quantitative data and to obtain a deeper understanding of gender roles and contraceptive use. Results: Findings showed that most couples rely on female-dependent contraceptives and that while women hold most of the family planning responsibility, men's opinions have more weight on the final decision. Additionally, women's financial autonomy and spousal communication regarding birth control were associated with contraceptive use within the couple. However, this communication usually began after the birth of the third child. Lastly, the hypothesis that egalitarian gender attitudes were associated with contraceptive use could not be confirmed. Conclusion: This study clearly demonstrates that contraception use is influenced by couples' dynamics, more specifically spousal communication, in Lao PDR. The findings have highlighted the need to involve men in all stages of family planning, and to foster both spousal communication and financial autonomy for women. If the findings are implemented, this may foster shared decision making within couples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A small pond in Hinewai Reserve, Banks Peninsula, Canterbury has revealed a phytoplankton bloom consisting of an unusually minute desmid which has consequently been difficult to observe. It is described, assigned to the genus Cosmarium and compared with superficially similar species. It has unique features which justify assigning it to a new species Cosmarium wilsonii David B. Williamson & C.F. Carter. It is named after the Reserve kaitiaki (manager) Dr H. D. Wilson. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We review the biology and ecology of the endemic New Zealand genus Alseuosmia A. Cunn. The taxonomy of the genus has a complicated history with considerable debate about both its relationship to other genera and the number of species recognised within it. Alseuosmia is now considered to belong to the small Southern Hemisphere family Alseuosmiaceae. Five species are currently accepted within Alseuosmia (A. macrophylla A. Cunn, A. turneri R. O. Gardner, A. pusilla Colenso, A. quercifolia A. Cunn and A. banksii A. Cunn). However, A. banksii is extremely morphologically variable and some forms that do not fit in to the existing taxonomy may warrant recognition at the species level. Unusual features of the genus include rayless wood and the apparent mimicry by some Alseuosmia species of unrelated plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]