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The role of δ-Fe in hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of 17-4 PH steel is studied in this work. Scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy result indicates that δ-Fe is a hydrogen trapping site. Accordingly, δ-Fe can reduce the hydrogen concentration of surrounding martensite and prior austenite grain boundaries (PAGBs) and imped the brittle fracture along lath boundaries and PAGBs, which can be beneficial to the HE resistance improvement. However, a cleavage fracture of δ-Fe can occur under the synergetic action of hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen enhancement of the strain-induced generation of vacancies (HESIV). These findings indicate a new path to improving HE resistance of high strength martensitic steels. • SKPFM result shows that hydrogen tends to segregate in delta ferrite. • Delta ferrite acting as a hydrogen trapping site decreases the tendency of brittle fracture. • Hydrogen segregation in delta ferrite leads to a strain localization and a subsequent transgranular cleavage fracture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Supercritical heat transfer mechanisms and heat transfer correlations are firstly reviewed in present paper. The heat transfer characteristics of S-CO 2 in circumferentially non-uniform heated vertical upward flow are then numerically studied and the fundamental mechanisms are discussed. The abnormal heat transfer for S-CO 2 is believed to be caused by the comprehensive effect of thermophysical property variations. For S-CO 2 with non-uniform heating and large mass flow rate, the enhanced heat transfer is mainly related to the large specific heat in the near wall region while the deteriorated heat transfer is dominated by the thickening viscous sublayer induced by the viscosity increase. Besides, the buoyancy effect induced by the density variation is still prominent to axial velocity distribution even in the forced convection. Finally a new correlation with higher accuracy is developed for S-CO 2 circumferentially average heat transfer by introducing the correction parameters of viscosity, specific heat, axial flow-acceleration and non-uniform heat flux. Highlights • Supercritical heat transfer mechanisms and correlations are comprehensively reviewed. • Heat transfer of S-CO 2 under non-uniform heating is numerically studied. • The relation between thermophysical property variation and abnormal heat transfer is examined. • An average heat transfer correlation for S-CO 2 under non-uniform heating is proposed and evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Up to now, the precise role of reversed austenite (RA) in hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of steel is still not fully understood. This work presents new observations and interpretation of fracture surface features immediately beneath the fracture surface for S41500 martensitic stainless steels (MSS) with aim to reveal the role of RA in HE resistance. The MSS were tensile tested with slow strain rate under electrochemical hydrogen charging condition. Steel containing more RA was found to have less hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility. Focused ion beam (FIB) was used to prepare sample for TEM observation of fracture path after HE fracture. It clearly shows that RA near the fracture surface has transformed to the newly formed martensite (NFM) and cracking occurs along both the tempered martensite/NFM boundaries and the lath boundaries. Three dimension atom probe (3DAP) confirms that RA is the H trapping site. Thus the beneficial role of RA is that it can act as a stable hydrogen trapping site which can increase the HE resistance by reducing hydrogen content at lath and grain boundaries. But its beneficial effect should not be overestimated since cracking along tempered martensite/NFM boundaries can occur after martensitic transformation as a result of hydrogen redistribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The supercritical-CO 2 (S–CO 2) cooler is one of the main components in S–CO 2 power system. This work aims at revealing the cooling mechanism of S–CO 2 under wide working conditions to assist the S–CO 2 cooler design. The pseudo-condensation is proposed with the analogy between supercritical cooling and subcritical condensation. From the pseudo-condensation and the traditional turbulent field analysis, the specific heat is found to be the dominant parameter for the enhanced heat transfer in S–CO 2 cooling. The disappearing of enhanced cooling heat transfer, in the view of pseudo-condensation, is mainly due to the thickening of pseudo liquid film, which is dominated by the gravity force, inertial force and interfacial force in low mass flux flow while the gravity force effect is negligible in high mass flux flow. However, from the turbulent field analysis, the disappearing of enhanced cooling heat transfer is mainly caused by the thickening boundary layer due to the local increase in density and viscosity in addition to the decrease in specific heat. Finally, based on the S–CO 2 cooling mechanism, two correlations for predicting heat transfer are proposed and evaluated. The present work can significantly enhance in-depth understanding on S–CO 2 cooling and promote engineering application. • The S–CO 2 cooling mechanism is analyzed with pseudo-condensation and turbulent field. • Pseudo-condensation is based on analogy between supercritical cooling and subcritical condensation. • Turbulent field analysis focuses on selection of key influencing thermophysical properties. • Two more accurate correlations are developed based on the obtained cooling mechanism. • The pseudo-condensation for S–CO 2 cooling process is proved to be with high reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Recent advances in supercritical carbon dioxide power system are summarized. • The general and unique problems in coupling of supercritical carbon dioxide power cycle and different heat sources are identified. • The multiscale features of supercritical carbon dioxide power system are demonstrated. • Applications of supercritical carbon dioxide power system in nuclear, solar energy and fossil fuel are discussed. • An outlook on technical challenges is presented to promote industrial applications. Under the background of carbon reduction, the development of efficient power conversion system has drawn more important attention. The advantages of high efficiency and compactness have triggered increasing industrial interests in the applications of supercritical carbon dioxide power system for broad heat sources. However, when the supercritical carbon dioxide power cycle is coupled with different heat sources, there exist both general problems mainly associated with the supercritical carbon dioxide cycles and unique problems due to the heating processes of supercritical carbon dioxide. Moreover, the multiscale features of the supercritical carbon dioxide power system lead to significant challenges to theoretical analysis and engineering design. This review work provides the recent advances of supercritical carbon dioxide power systems, especially for the applications in heat sources of nuclear, solar and fossil fuel. With a focus on the category of general problems and unique problems, the current studies concerning the coupling of supercritical carbon dioxide power cycle with a specific heat source are further divided into three scales of system, component and process. The designs of the reactor core in nuclear, the receiver in concentrated solar power plant and the boiler in coal-fired power plant are discussed in detail at the scales of system, component and process. Future research directions for supercritical carbon dioxide power system are identified at different scales and more accurate integrated modelling for the coupling of supercritical carbon dioxide power cycle with specific heat sources are encouraged. The present work will benefit the in-depth understanding and further promotion of supercritical carbon dioxide power systems in industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A novel optimization algorithm called disturbance inspired equilibrium optimizer was developed. • New hybrid population initialization technique was proposed to generate high-quality initial population. • Novel update rules and adaptive position disturbance mechanism were proposed to improve exploitation and exploration. • Evaluation on representative mathematical benchmark functions and three real-world engineering problems. • Comparisons verified efficiency and superiority of the proposed algorithm. This work proposes a novel adaptive global optimization algorithm called Disturbance Inspired Equilibrium Optimizer. The purpose of this study is to enhance the exploitation ability of the newly developed Equilibrium Optimizer, and to address the issue of getting trapped in local minima. The proposed algorithm is benefited from the novel disturbance-based hybrid initialization strategy, the new form of time factor, and the new update rule of particle's position. In addition, a novel boundary check strategy and an adaptive global position disturbance mechanism are proposed and installed into our algorithm. Based on the disturbance-inspired modifications, the exploration and exploitation ability of the standard Equilibrium Optimizer are significantly improved. The performance of the proposed algorithm is evaluated using representative different benchmark functions, consisting of three well-known mathematical benchmark functions, six complex composite functions, and four challenge functions proposed on 2017 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. Also, the proposed algorithm is conducted to optimize three engineering designs to examine its applicability in constrained real-world problems. In all experiments, the developed algorithm is compared with six other state-of-the-art metaheuristics. Experimental results and the average rank of Friedman test show that our algorithm provides promising results in solving mathematical problems and constrained real-world engineering optimization problems. Therefore, the proposed algorithm is competitive compared to the other state-of-the-art metaheuristic algorithms and is an effective solution to real-world engineering problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work presents a design of 1000 MW S–CO 2 coal-fired power system, containing not only a new methodology of S–CO 2 power system modeling, but also the specific directions for engineering design. The coupling between computational fluid dynamic simulations at boiler scale and the mathematical modeling of the thermal cycle facilitates a high reliability of the comprehensive design. Our analysis helps identify key questions and then delivers specific directions for engineering design, especially for the pressure drop penalty in tail flue and thermal-hydraulic performance of cooling wall. The proposed flue split method coupled with parallel utilization method can not only effectively reduce the pressure drop penalty but also simplify the system heater configuration. Moreover, the thermal performance of S–CO 2 cooling wall is improved by using the flue gas recirculation and cooling wall arrangement optimization. The optimized position and proportion of flue gas extraction are further obtained. Comprehensively, the proposed design of S–CO 2 coal-fired power system enhances the system net efficiency up to 51.00%, with an efficient utilization of residual heat and cooling wall temperature below 700 °C. • A multiscale modelling platform is proposed for S–CO 2 coal-fired power system. • An improved system is obtained with system net efficiency up to 51.00% and cooling wall temperature all below 700 °C. • Flue split method and parallel utilization are developed for efficient recovery of tail flue heat. • Flue gas recirculation and cooling wall optimization are used to improve thermal safety of S–CO 2 cooling wall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An integration system with adaptive modification module for 1000 MW S-CO 2 Brayton cycle and coal-fired boiler is developed. • The effects of typical layout parameters on thermal-hydraulic performance are obtained. • A layout with the highest thermal-hydraulic performance is proposed. • Accurate engineering design of S-CO 2 coal-fired power plants can be realized based on the integration system. An integration system for 1000 MW S-CO 2 connected-top-bottom power cycle with overlap utilization and coal-fired boiler is developed. The adaptive modification module is introduced to eliminate the non-convergence for S-CO 2 superheater thermal calculation in the system iteration. Thermal-hydraulic performance in terms of thermal performance, cycle efficiency, heater configurations, heater areas and final parameter evenness are discussed. Firstly, the strong constraint effects of inlet and outlet parameters on superheater thermal calculation convergence are demonstrated and the adaptive modification module is established. Secondly, based on the detailed thermal-hydraulic analysis, different layouts are compared to identify the flow path way and the heat absorption of S-CO 2 flow in different heating processes. The midpoint between the two peaks of heat flux is recommended as the start point for the cold fluid placement in cooling wall arrangement. Finally, a new layout is proposed to obtain the highest overall thermal-hydraulic performance, with a net power efficiency up to 47.57% and a total heater area of 316426.18 m2. The design sequences for S-CO 2 coal-fired boiler heaters are recommended as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Supercritical carbon dioxide (S–CO 2) Brayton cycle is considered as a promising alternative to traditional steam Rankine cycle due to its high efficiency and compactness. However, in coal-fired power system, the S–CO 2 temperature at cooling wall entrance is newly recognized quite high, leading to an over-temperature crisis. A coupled model of combustion and S–CO 2 heat transfer was established to predict cooling wall temperature of a 1000 MW S–CO 2 Brayton coal-fired boiler. Based on the module arrangement in S–CO 2 boiler, the "cold S–CO 2 -hot fire matching and cascaded temperature control" principle in 1D model was proposed to reduce the cooling wall temperature. Three methods were examined including the low-temperature fluid matching high heat flux burner region, the counterflow, and more cold fluid in circulation drained to match high heat flux zone. The results show that the optimal arrangement can significantly reduce the temperature in overheated region 12–44 °C and eliminate the local hot spot. In addition, the 3D model was developed to obtain the maximum wall temperature and the uneven temperature in the circumferential direction. The employment of spiral cooling wall could alleviate circumferential unevenness and reduce wall temperature. The present work can provide important guidance to design of S–CO 2 Brayton coal-fired power system. • A coupled model of combustion and S–CO 2 heat transfer was established to predict cooling wall temperature. • The "cold S–CO 2 -hot fire matching and cascaded temperature control" principle in 1D model was proposed. • The uneven temperature distribution in circumferential direction of cooling wall in 3D model was calculated. • The spiral tubes of cooling wall could effectively relieve uneven problem and reduce wall temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The seriousness of the HTD problems in large-diameter tubes is highlighted experimentally. • SST k-ω model for S-CO 2 heat transfer prediction is experimentally validated within ±15% error range. • HTD mechanism is revealed by comprehensive comparisons between simulations and experiments. • Pseudo-nucleate boiling concept is proposed to further develop the pseudo-boiling theory for S-CO 2. • Conical strips insert can prevent HTD problems and achieve high PEC of 1.21-1.35. Heat transfer deterioration (HTD) problems can undermine the thermal safety of heating tubes for supercritical carbon dioxide (S-CO 2) flows. Relevant experimental evidence is highly desired, but most cases were investigated for small tube diameters (below 10 mm) and under limited operation parameters, far from the industry-scale applications. In the present work, large tubes (24 mm) are investigated experimentally with pressures of 7.5–15 MPa, mass flow rates of 100–1200 kg·m−2·s−1 and heat fluxes of 30–350 kW·m−2. The seriousness of HTD in large tubes was experimentally confirmed, and the mechanism is explored via a carefully-designed comprehensive comparison between present numerical simulations and experimental tests. Detailed analysis of vapor-like film development inspires us to mitigate the problem using structured-inner-surface, from the viewpoint of "supercritical pseudo-boiling". This inspiration is further evaluated numerically: five types of enhancement structures are proposed to interfere with the development of vapor-like film. It was found that the proposed methods can fully prevent HTD problems, and especially the conical strips can achieve a high heat transfer performance (with performance evaluation criteria PEC of 1.21–1.35) and are thus recommended for HTD prevention in vertical large-diameter tubes under near-critical conditions. Overall, the experimental tests and numerical explorations can deliver more evidence on the theory and applications of supercritical fluid flow and heat transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compressed carbon dioxide is a promising energy storage technology. However, renewable energy variability can lead to insufficiency during charging and discharging. The present work systematically investigates the effect of charging/discharging insufficiency on compressed carbon dioxide energy storage systems from the viewpoint of transient thermodynamic cycles. The insufficiency extent is defined based on the pressure at the high-pressure tank when disturbances occur. Then the effects of insufficiency extent are investigated in three typical scenarios. In the results, the effects of charging/discharging insufficiency on the efficiency, storage density and power output of the energy storage system during long-term operation are demonstrated. The efficiency of the system during the whole working period is 57.78%, lower than the design efficiency of 59.66%. In particular, the energy storage density is reduced dramatically to 197.60 kJ·m−3, which is 78.2% of the storage density of 252.68 kJ·m−3 at design conditions. Besides, the average output power of the turbine is reduced to 95.70% of the design value. The present work provides an improved understanding of the charging and discharging for compressed carbon dioxide energy storage, especially when renewables are integrated. • Problem on renewable energy variability effects on carbon dioxide energy storage is proposed and formulated. • Insufficient charging/discharging effects on efficiency, power and energy storage density are evaluated. • Cycle efficiency can be maintained at 57.78% but energy storage density reduced to 78.2%. • Necessity to consider renewable energy efficiency in economic analysis is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heaters working with supercritical fluids normally suffer from high temperature, high pressure and non-uniform heating, which would lead to thermal fragile and stress failure in practical engineering. However, efficient and accurate methods to predict the comprehensive stress in non-uniformly heating tubes are missing. Besides, to reduce the comprehensive stress, a criterion is required to provide optimization guidance of non-uniformly heating tubes. In present study, the thermal and mechanical performances of three typical non-uniformly heating tubes are numerically investigated using the FVM-FEM method. A generalized thermal deviation factor (GTDF) is then proposed. The results showed that the GTDF can accurately predict the ratio of comprehensive stress to yield strength and GTDF > 1 indicates the plastic deformation, which is much more convenient and efficient than the conventional structural analysis. Based on the GTDF , two methods of reducing heat flux non-uniformity and enhancing tube-inside heat transfer are proposed to reduce the comprehensive stress. The results show that the unilaterally elliptic dimpled tube reduces the maximum comprehensive stress by 30.8% compared with the smooth tube and also prevents the stress concentration in the dimple zone, which can be employed to reduce the comprehensive stress in various tubes under non-uniformly heating conditions. • Thermal and comprehensive stresses in non-uniformly heating tubes were discussed. • A new criterion called GTDF was proposed to evaluate comprehensive stress. • The GTDF is more efficient and intuitive than the comprehensive stress. • Two methods are proposed to reduce the comprehensive stress based on the GTDF. • The elliptic dimple is recommended in non-uniformly heating tubes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Integration and conversion of supercritical carbon dioxide coal-fired power cycle and high efficiency energy storage cycle are discussed. • A three-step strategy is proposed and various cycles are presented and assessed. • First step: the tri-compression coal-fired integrated energy storage cycle has a high efficiency. • Second step: the integrated energy storage cycle with various heat sources needs to consider the trade-off of performance criteria. • Third step: the high efficiency split expansion adiabatic energy storage cycle is proposed. The emission peak/carbon neutrality calls for significantly improved coal-fired power plants. Sustainability of the power plants is critical to meeting the net zero targets in 2050/2060. In this context, it is necessary to investigate the integration and conversion of the supercritical carbon dioxide coal-fired power cycle and the supercritical carbon dioxide energy storage cycle. In this work, the thermodynamic model and performance criteria are firstly presented. After comparison of the two cycles, a three-step strategy for the development of the power cycle is proposed and assessed. First step: when coal still plays an important role as a main energy resource, the integrated tri-compression coal-fired supercritical compressed carbon dioxide energy storage cycle has the highest round-trip efficiency of 56.37%. Second step: with the challenge in utilization of coal energy, a trade-off among the performance criteria must be struck in the integrated cycle with various heat sources. Third step: the adiabatic supercritical compressed carbon dioxide energy storage cycle is proposed, and a high round-trip efficiency of 72.34% is achieved in the split expansion cycle. The present research provides not only a new prospect of the conventional power plants but also design guidance for the supercritical carbon dioxide energy storage cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supercritical carbon dioxide (S–CO 2) coal-fired power systems have been widely investigated due to its high efficiency and compactness. These power systems can range between 50 and 1000 MW and thus the corresponding boilers actually operate under dramatically different conditions. It is necessary to investigate the inherent relationship among different capacity S–CO 2 boilers, which not only bring new theoretical understandings but also help improve practical designs. In this work, a unified model is proposed to investigate both thermal-hydraulic and thermodynamic performance. Furthermore, it is applied to evaluate the relationship between power capacity and boiler configuration. It is shown that small capacity furnaces suffer from overheating in the furnace wall and the optimized cooling wall is suggested to tackle this issue. Moreover, it is found that high pressure drop in the cooling wall of large capacity furnaces results in significant penalty on the cycle efficiency. For the popular 1000 MW boiler, an optimized configuration is suggested by moving the second reheating into the horizontal flue of boiler, achieving a lower pressure drop and an improved cycle efficiency from 35.4% to 50.09%. Finally, three recommendations for the capacity-dependent configurations are presented. • A unified model for different capacity S–CO2 coal-fired boilers is established. • Overheating of cooling wall in boilers of small capacity is illustrated and an optimization is proposed. • Pressure drop penalty worsens in cooling wall of large capacity furnaces and results in a cycle efficiency reduction. • Three recommendations for the capacity-dependent configurations are demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The S–CO 2 Brayton cycle has been considered as a promising alternative in coal-fired power plants due to its high efficiency and high compactness. However, the high inlet temperature and low heat transfer coefficient of S–CO 2 in the cooling wall tubes arranged in the furnace could lead to thermal fragile in practical operation. In present study, thermal-hydraulic-structural evaluation on S–CO 2 cooling wall tubes is investigated. Firstly, it is found that the stress distribution is mainly dominated by the circumferential temperature gradient. Secondly, a new criterion, the thermal deviation factor (TDF), is proposed to evaluate the tube thermal stress. It indicates the plastic deformation if exceeding the critical value of TDF = 1, which is more efficient than conventional structural analysis. Thirdly, based on the TDF , two typical methods of inserting twisted tapes and unilaterally arranging dimples inside the tube are proposed to reduce the thermal stress. A novel configuration of elliptic dimple with rounded corners is finally proposed to reduce the local stress concentration efficiently. The results show that the elliptic dimples have the highest comprehensive performance, which is recommended as the heat transfer enhancement structures in S–CO 2 cooling wall tubes. • Thermal-hydraulic-structural performance of S–CO 2 cooling wall tube is investigated. • A new thermal deviation factor (TDF) is proposed to evaluate thermal stress. • Twisted tapes and unilaterally arranged dimples are used to reduce thermal stress. • A novel elliptic dimple can release local stress concentration and improve comprehensive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]