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Most pathogens have developed an intrinsic capacity to thrive by developing resistance to antimicrobial compounds utilized in treatment. Antimicrobial resistance arises when microbial agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites alter their behaviour to make current conventional medicines inefficient. Vaccination is one of the most effective strategies to fight antimicrobial resistance. Vaccines, unlike drugs, are less likely to produce resistance since they are precise to their target illnesses. Vaccines against infectious agents such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae have already been shown to reduce tolerance to antimicrobial medications; however, vaccines against some antimicrobial-resistant pathogens such as Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, nosocomial infections, and pulmonary and diarrheal disease viruses require more research and development. This paper describes vaccine roles in combatting antimicrobial resistance, quantifies the overall advantages of vaccination as an anti-antimicrobial resistance approach, analyzes existing antimicrobial vaccines and those currently under development, and emphasizes some of the obstacles and prospects of vaccine research and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] Microbes can influence the durability of civil engineering structures. Damage caused by microbes (known as biodeterioration) results in compromised structural integrity causing adverse effects on economic and social wellbeing. One key example is that of microbiologically induced concrete corrosion (MICC) due to the bacteria in concrete sewerage pipes which leads to reduced lifespan of sewer pipes. Antimicrobial materials provide a biocidal approach for eradicating the microbes either by inhibiting their growth, or by actively killing them. An ideal antimicrobial material should possess qualities such as sustainability, durability, eco-friendliness, economic viability to avoid the growing issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The literature covering these topics vital to the construction sector is rather scarce. Therefore, this review paper summarises various types of antimicrobial materials currently used in the construction sector detailing their mode of biocidal activity, and their application in structures. This paper also addresses recent developments, demerits and future scope that may aid in employing them expeditiously in the construction sector, particularly to benefit plumbing, and sanitation used in hospitals and high traffic areas and public places including airports, schools and other educational establishments. Overall, the study draws attention to newer antimicrobial mechanisms and provides recommendations for developing new, efficient antimicrobial materials that can provide sustainability and a safe environment to the construction sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the current decreasing fossil resources and increasing carbon dioxide emissions, researchers are increasingly concerned about the development and utilization of biomass resources. The development of bio-based waterborne polyurethanes (BWPU) provides a new direction for the utilization of biomass resources and the protection of the environment. BWPU has attracted much attention from academia and industry due to their good physical and chemical properties, no volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions, exploitation of renewable substances, and structural design-ability. BWPU typically includes the polymerization of bio-based monomers, such as animal and vegetable oils, the addition of bio-based nanofillers, such as cellulose, lignin, and chitosan, and antimicrobial modifications, such silver nanoparticles and carvacrol, which can effectively replace traditional petroleum-based resources. At present, there are few reviews on the synthesis and applications of BWPU. Therefore, this paper reviews the recent progress in the synthesis of BWPU, and focuses on its applications in coatings, adhesives and antimicrobials, which is expected to provide reference and summarize research priorities and issues. [Display omitted] • Summarize bio-based waterborne polyurethanes (BWPU) recently produced from bio-based raw materials. • Summarize the current applications of BWPU, including coatings, adhesives and antimicrobials. • Suggestions are provided for further future research by BWPU in other areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cytinus hypocistis has a broad spectrum antibacterial activity. • Limonium morisianum has potent anti-staphylococcal properties. • P. terebinthus ssp. terebinthus inhibits multi-drug resistant K. pneumoniae strains. • Total phenolic content has a positive relationship with antibacterial activity. In this paper, thirty-six extracts from Sardinian plants were evaluated in vitro for their antimicrobial activity towards a panel of reference strains, Staphylococcus aureus , S. epidermidis , Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli , and for their cytotoxicity on mammalian cells. The biological data, together with total phenolic and flavonoid content of the extracts, were treated by PCA (Principal Components Analysis), which highlighted the positive correlation among total phenolic content and increasing antibacterial activities, and a possible involvement of flavonoids in mitigate the cytotoxicity. Thirteen extracts displayed relevant IC 50 values (half maximal inhibitory concentration) on S. aureus (IC 50 from 1.4 to 153.6 μg/mL), ten out of them were active also against S. epidermidis (IC 50 from 3.9 to 150 μg/mL), seven against K. pneumoniae (IC 50 from 28.5 to 97.5 μg/mL), and two against E. coli (IC 50 74.9 and 156.3 μg/mL). In particular, three extracts obtained from Pistacia terebinthus ssp. terebinthus, Cytinus hypocistis and Limonium morisianum emerged as promising antibacterial candidates. They exhibited remarkable inhibitory activity towards bacterial strains from clinical specimens and presenting different antibiotic-resistance profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing interest in the occurrence and sources of pharmaceutical substances in the environment. This paper reports the first detailed transect of pharmaceutical occurrence along the River Thames, UK, from source to sea, undertaken during a period of high flow in 2016. In 37 samples a total of 41 pharmaceuticals and 2 lifestyle compounds (cocaine and sucralose) were detected. Total concentration of pharmaceuticals ranged from 0.0012 μg/l to 10.24 μg/l with a median of 2.6 μg/l. Sucralose concentrations varied from <0.01 to 5.9 μg/l with a median concentration of 1.93 μg/l and was detected in every sample except the groundwater-dominated sources of the Thames. Antimicrobials, including those on the surface water watch list (erythromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin) were detected in every site downstream of the Thames source. Diclofenac, recently on the surface water watch list, was detected in 97% of Thames samples and above the proposed EQS of 0.1 μg/l in 12 samples. Distinct increases in concentration and number of pharmaceuticals were found downstream of the Oxford, Mogdon and Hogsmill wastewater treatment works (WWTW) but were more subdued downstream of the Crossness and Beckton WWTW due to the tidal nature of the Thames and combined sewer outflows. Sucralose was found to be an excellent tracer of wastewaters (treated and untreated) and can be used as a proxy for many pharmaceuticals. Paracetamol and ibuprofen were tracers of untreated wastewater inputs to the Thames due to their high biodegradation within WWTWs. Image 1 • Pharmaceutical contamination is linked to WWTW discharge and untreated wastewater. • Sucralose was found to be an excellent proxy for pharmaceutical contamination. • Diclofenac was detected above a proposed EQS of 0.1 μg/l. • Antimicrobials found in every site except the groundwater dominated Thames source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Policy challenges and priorities change over the course of economic development. • Promoting small-scale aquaculture and large commercial systems can be synergistic. • The misuse of antimicrobials in aquaculture presents a major public health risk. • Case studies can serve as a guide in the design of sound aquaculture policies. • Aquaculture policy should be placed in a food systems context. Aquaculture is among the most dynamic sectors in the global food system, yet it remains surprisingly under-represented in the mainstream literature on food policy. This article reviews 204 published articles and reports and shows that government policies have strongly influenced the geographic distribution of aquaculture growth, as well as the types of species, technology, management practices, and infrastructure adopted in different locations. Global cross-section studies reveal a broad spectrum of under- to over-regulated aquaculture systems that correspond, respectively, to high- and low-growth areas for aquaculture. The bulk of this paper centers on aquaculture policy as it plays out six individual countries plus the EU: Bangladesh, Zambia, Chile, China, USA, and Norway. These case studies shed light on aquaculture policies aimed at economic development, aquaculture disease management, siting, environmental performance, and trade protection. Experiences from these countries point to the need to find the right policy balance between semi-subsistence farms, small and medium enterprises (SME), and large-scale commercial operations, particularly in low-income settings. The cases also highlight the importance of addressing aquaculture disease pressures and misuse of antimicrobials in many parts of the world, and identifying successful aquaculture policy instruments and institutions that can be transferred between countries. The review underscores the challenges of establishing nutrition-sensitive aquaculture policies and of incorporating aquaculture directly into food policy and global food system dialogues and action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of mycotoxins in broiler feed can have deleterious effects on the wellbeing of the animals and their performance. Mycotoxin binders are feed additives that aim to adsorb mycotoxins in the intestinal tract and thereby prevent the oral absorption of the mycotoxin. The simultaneous administration of coccidiostats and/or antimicrobials with mycotoxin binders might lead to a reduced oral bioavailability of these veterinary medicinal products. This paper describes the influence of 3 mycotoxin binders (i.e., clay 1 containing montmorillonite, mica, and feldspars; clay 2 containing montmorillonite and quartz; and yeast 1 being a modified glucomannan fraction of inactivated yeast cells) and activated carbon on the oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters of the antimicrobials doxycycline and tylosin, and the coccidiostats diclazuril and salinomycin. A feeding study with 40 15 day-old broilers was performed evaluating the effects of long-term feeding 2 g mycotoxin binder/kg of feed. The birds were randomly divided into 5 groups of 8 birds each, i.e., a control group receiving no binder and 4 test groups receiving either clay 1, clay 2, yeast 1, or activated carbon mixed in the feed. After 15 d of feeding, both the control and each test group were administered doxycycline, tylosin, diclazuril, and salinomycin, consecutively, respecting a wash-out period of 2 to 3 d between each administration. The 4 medicinal products were dosed using a single bolus administration directly in the crop. After each bolus administration, blood was collected for plasma analysis and calculation of the main pharmacokinetic parameters and relative oral bioavailability (F = area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0–8 h) in the test groups/AUC0–8 h in the control group)*100). No effects were observed of any of the mycotoxin binders on the relative oral bioavailability of the coccidiostats (i.e., F between 82 and 101% and 79 and 93% for diclazuril and salinomycin, respectively). Also, no significant effects could be noticed of any of the mycotoxin binders on the relative oral bioavailability of the antimicrobials doxycycline and tylosin (i.e., F between 67 and 83% and between 43 and 104%, respectively). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small-scale small ruminants’ farming is the major system in poor resources settings, yet their farming practices largely unknown. This paper assessed the husbandry practices, antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance of commensal Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica in sheep and goat pastoralists in rural Jordan. Fifty-two sheep and goat farmers were interviewed concerning disease incidence, antimicrobial use and knowledge of antimicrobials. E. coli and Salmonella were isolated from freshly passed fecal pellets by standard methods, confirmed by molecular methods, and tested for resistance against 12 antimicrobial by the disc diffusion method. Interview results indicated that a limited variety of antimicrobial drugs (oxytetracycline, penicillin and tylosin) are used by small ruminant farmers in Jordan. Moreover, farmers store the antimicrobials at improper temperatures and frequently obtain antimicrobials without prescription; veterinary consultation prior to antimicrobial use is infrequent. Higher antimicrobial resistance than most worldwide similar studies was exhibited by the isolates: 67.7% and 76.9% of the E. coli and Salmonella isolates, respectively, exhibited resistance to at least one antimicrobial and 33.3% and 38.5% exhibited resistance to at least three classes of antimicrobials. Among all bacterial isolates, the most frequent resistance was to tetracycline and cephalothin; resistance to ceftriaxone, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin was rare. In general, E. coli exhibited higher resistance percentages than Salmonella for the tested antimicrobials. This study shows that upgrading the role of veterinarian and improving antimicrobial use practices at the grassroots level through educating farmers on proper handling and judicious use of antimicrobials are essential, as many antimicrobials are critically important for treating human infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dairy industry in the developed world has undergone profound changes over recent decades. In this paper, we present an overview of some of the most important recent changes in the dairy industry that affect health and welfare of dairy cows, as well as the science associated with these changes. Additionally, knowledge gaps are identified where research is needed to guide the dairy industry through changes that are occurring now or that we expect will occur in the future. The number of farms has decreased considerably, whereas herd size has increased. As a result, an increasing number of dairy farms depend on hired (nonfamily) labor. Regular professional communication and establishment of farm-specific protocols are essential to minimize human errors and ensure consistency of practices. Average milk production per cow has increased, partly because of improvements in nutrition and management but also because of genetic selection for milk production. Adoption of new technologies (e.g., automated calf feeders, cow activity monitors, and automated milking systems) is accelerating. However, utilization of the data and action lists that these systems generate for health and welfare of livestock is still largely unrealized, and more training of dairy farmers, their employees, and their advisors is necessary. Concurrently, to remain competitive and to preserve their social license to operate, farmers are increasingly required to adopt increased standards for food safety and biosecurity, become less reliant on the use of antimicrobials and hormones, and provide assurances regarding animal welfare. Partly because of increasing herd size but also in response to animal welfare regulations in some countries, the proportion of dairy herds housed in tiestalls has decreased considerably. Although in some countries access to pasture is regulated, in countries that traditionally practiced seasonal grazing, fewer farmers let their dairy cows graze in the summer. The proportion of organic dairy farms has increased globally and, given the pressure to decrease the use of antimicrobials and hormones, conventional farms may be able to learn from well-managed organic farms. The possibilities of using milk for disease diagnostics and monitoring are considerable, and dairy herd improvement associations will continue to expand the number of tests offered to diagnose diseases and pregnancy. Genetic and genomic selection for increased resistance to disease offers substantial potential but requires collection of additional phenotypic data. There is every expectation that changes in the dairy industry will be further accentuated and additional novel technologies and different management practices will be adopted in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been growing concern about bacterial resistance to antimicrobials in the farmed livestock sector. Attention has turned to sub-optimal use of antimicrobials as a driver of resistance. Recent reviews have identified a lack of data on the pattern of antimicrobial use as an impediment to the design of measures to tackle this growing problem. This paper reports on a study that explored use of antibiotics by dairy farmers and factors influencing their decision-making around this usage. We found that respondents had either recently reduced their use of antibiotics, or planned to do so. Advice from their veterinarian was instrumental in this. Over 70% thought reducing antibiotic usage would be a good thing to do. The most influential source of information used was their own veterinarian. Some 50% were unaware of the available guidelines on use in cattle production. However, 97% thought it important to keep treatment records. The Theory of Planned Behaviour was used to identify dairy farmers’ drivers and barriers to reduce use of antibiotics. Intention to reduce usage was weakly correlated with current and past practice of antibiotic use, whilst the strongest driver was respondents’ belief that their social and advisory network would approve of them doing this. The higher the proportion of income from milk production and the greater the chance of remaining in milk production, the significantly higher the likelihood of farmers exhibiting positive intention to reduce antibiotic usage. Such farmers may be more commercially minded than others and thus more cost-conscious or, perhaps, more aware of possible future restrictions. Strong correlation was found between farmers’ perception of their social referents’ beliefs and farmers’ intent to reduce antibiotic use. Policy makers should target these social referents, especially veterinarians, with information on the benefits from, and the means to, achieving reductions in antibiotic usage. Information on sub-optimal use of antibiotics as a driver of resistance in dairy herds and in humans along with advice on best farm practice to minimize risk of disease and ensure animal welfare, complemented with data on potential cost savings from reduced antibiotic use would help improve poor practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial agents are added to poultry products after slaughter to prevent the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms and to extend the shelf-life of these products. Antimicrobials can be either natural or chemical, which may affect the sensory attributes at elevated concentrations, such as surface color, odor, flavor, taste, and texture of the poultry products. Thus, when selecting antimicrobials for use in poultry processing, it is vital to consider the antimicrobial-induced changes in sensory aspects from the consumers' perspectives. In spite of its importance, there has been no systematic review on the influences of antimicrobials on sensory aspects of poultry products. This paper reviews the major antimicrobial agents used in the poultry processing industry and their effects on sensory aspects of the poultry products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Veterinary antibiotics (VAs) are widely recognized as important environmental contaminants. Despite the extensive use of antibiotic agents in meat and poultry production and the known resistance problems in human and veterinary medicine, detailed knowledge about usage patterns of VAs in Germany is still scarce. This lack of knowledge severely impacts current research on the environmental risk of VAs, but it is expected that recently established surveillance programs for antimicrobial drug usage will close this knowledge gap. Therefore, a spatially more precise environmental risk assessment and management might become possible in the near future. In this study, a new usage pattern-based exposure screening (UPES) approach for the comprehensive environmental exposure assessment of veterinary antibiotics was preliminarily assessed using approximated scenarios of antimicrobial substance usage in German meat and poultry production. Resulting predicted manure concentrations covered seven orders of magnitude ranging from ng kg −1 to g kg −1 dry weight (dw). Beyond that 14 antibiotic substances of 10 different antimicrobial classes were predicted to have the potential to occur in soil concentrations higher than 100 μg kg −1 dw. These findings raise further questions regarding the environmental exposure and risks of frequently used VAs, especially in regions with higher-than-average livestock density. With this case study we demonstrate that UPES simplifies to account for differing local agricultural factors and therefore facilitates priority-setting on a regional level. In this context a simple prioritization scheme for environmental assessment of VAs, considering both the expected environmental concentration and the frequency of application, is proposed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chalcones represent key structural motif in the plethora of biologically active molecules including synthetic and natural products. Synthetic manipulations of chalcones or their isolation from natural sources are being investigated worldwide for the development of more potent and efficient drugs for the treatment of several dreadful diseases such as cancer, diabetes, HIV, tuberculosis, malaria etc. Over the past few years, a large volume of research papers and review articles highlighting the significance of chalcone derivatives has been compiled in the literature. The present review article focuses on the recent developments (2010–2014) on various pharmacological and medicinal aspects of chalcones and their analogues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The grafting of laccase-catalysed butyl paraben (BPH) and p-coumaric acid (PCA) onto chitosan were performed using an eco-friendly procedure at 40 °C and with a phosphate buffer (100 mM, pH 6.5). Linear potentiometric titration, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were used to characterise the graft ratio, and structural changes in the BPH- and PCA-chitosans: their antioxidant and antibacterial activities were then analysed. The results showed that the graft ratios of BPH-chitosan and PCA-chitosan were 8.0% and 10.2% respectively. The FTIR showed an absorption decrease in amino groups and a new band appeared at 1637 cm−1 corresponding to C N vibrations that were characteristic of imines due to Schiff base formation between the amino groups of chitosan and the phenolic hydroxyl of BPH or PCA. The thermal stability of chitosan derivatives was thus improved. Additionally, the antioxidant capacities of chitosan derivatives were improved, especially for the PCA-chitosan derivative (IC 50 were 2.069 mg/mL and 0.349 mg/mL for DPPH + and ABTS + scavenging, respectively): the samples also exhibited an increased activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus compared to untreated chitosan. Unlabelled Image • Butyl paraben or p-coumaric acid was successfully grafted onto chitosan by laccase-catalysed oxidation, respectively. • Chitosan modified by p-coumaric acid has significant antioxidant properties. • Chitosan derivatives have excellent antibacterial properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]