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Climate change has impacted development progress and increased global inequality. Therefore, all emitters, both developed and developing countries, must implement climate change mitigation and adaptation actions. Indonesia is one of the developing countries that signed the Paris Agreement. In its NDC document, Indonesia has pledged to reduce greenhouse gases emission by 29% using domestic resources (unconditional) and 41% with international support (conditional) from the business as usual (BAU) scenario by 2030. This commitment gives Indonesia the right to take advantage of various types of support, including ICF opportunities offered by the ADB through the non-UNFCCC financial scheme and the Global Green Growth Institute through the UNFCCC financial mechanism. This paper explores to what extent ICF supports the achievement of Indonesia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target. The study uses qualitative analysis to provide a general overview of ICF in Indonesia, its climate finance strategies, and the case study of the energy sector. The study finds that ICF in Indonesia continues to develop, albeit with many limitations. Several ICF channels could be utilized more optimally such as, loan and grant instruments. Indonesia cannot rely solely on international support to meet its enormous climate finance needs; it must develop innovative financing through various instruments, such as green sukuk. ICF also plays a role in facilitating the energy transition from coal-based to renewable energy sources and increasing energy efficiency. • Climate change has impacted development progress and increased global inequality; therefore, all emitters, both developed and developing countries, need climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. • Several ICF channels can be utilized more optimally, both on loan and grant instruments. • To meet climate finance needs, developing countries (e.g Indonesia) cannot rely solely on international support, and it is necessary to develop innovative financing through various instruments. • ICF also plays a role in encouraging a transformation in terms of energy use from coal-based energy sources to renewable and more efficient energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Comparing alternative fuels with potential for low-carbon intensities. • Technical process design and economic assessment of hydrogen and CO 2 -based fuels. • Environmental life-cycle assessment considering the full carbon cycle. • Identification of methodological challenges in carbon accounting of CO 2 -fuels. Abstract The deployment of low-emission alternative fuels is crucial to decarbonise the transport sector. A number of alternatives like hydrogen or dimethyl ether/methanol synthesised using CO 2 as feedstock for fuel production (hereafter refer to "CO 2 -based fuels") have been proposed to combat climate change. However, the decarbonisation potential of CO 2 -based fuels is under debate because CO 2 is re-emitted to the atmosphere when the fuel is combusted; and the majority of hydrogen still relies on fossil resources, which makes its prospects of being a low-carbon fuel dependent on its manufacturing process. First, this paper investigates the relative economic and environmental performance of hydrogen (produced from conventional steam methane reforming and produced via electrolysis using renewable energy), and CO 2 -based fuels (dimethyl ether and methanol), considering the full carbon cycle. The results reveal that hydrogen produced from steam methane reforming is the most economical option and that hydrogen produced via electrolysis using renewables has the best environmental profile. Whereas the idea of CO 2 -based fuels has recently gained much interest, it has for the foreseeable future rather limited practical relevance since there is no favourable combination of cost and environmental performance. This will only change in the long run and requires that CO 2 is of non-fossil origin, i.e. from biomass combustion or captured from air. Second, this paper address unresolved methodological issues in the assessment of CO 2 -based fuels, such as the possible allocation of emissions to the different sectors involved. The outcomes indicate that implementing different allocation approaches substantially influences the carbon footprint of CO 2 -based fuels. To avoid allocation issues, expanding the boundaries including the entire system and is therefore recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy transition is at the core of sustainable development as it helps to combat global warming and climate change. Similarly, carbon markets also support the climate change mitigation. Therefore, by realizing the potential role of clean energy and carbon markets in ensuring environmental sustainability, this study analyzes the spillovers and connectedness between the environment (global carbon) and renewable energy sources (wind, solar, geothermal, biofuel, and fuel cell). The empirical analysis is conducted by applying the novel "TVP-VAR" connectedness framework of Balcilar et al. (2021) on the daily data over the period from August 1, 2014, to February 4, 2022. The findings show that solar and biofuel appear as the highest net shock transmitter among alternative renewable sources while global carbon is shown as the net receiver of shocks. The largest transmission of shocks to global carbon is observed from wind followed by solar. Although these findings support the connectedness between renewable energy and the environment, however this connectedness is influenced by economic crises such as the oil crisis and pandemic crisis. During COVID-19, the fuel cell was the highest transmitter of shocks. The results are important for policy formulation, investment, and portfolio management as they provide insights into the interconnectedness and help in boosting climate actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing local and global emissions is one of the drivers behind the promotion of renewable energy technologies (RETs). Some RET projects (e.g. solar, marine power, and some biomass and wind) usually require supplemental income from carbon credits in order to make them economically viable. This paper presents the mathematical development of nodal marginal CO 2 emission metrics for hydrothermal systems. These metrics are obtained from optimal power flow and hydrothermal dispatch models considering hydro uncertainty. The proposed model allows a more accurate assessment of the emission reduction effect of RET projects and the provision of efficient carbon signals to the system. Modeling of hydro reservoirs and intertemporal constraints also allows incorporating the emission mitigation potential of water storage. The concepts of marginal CO 2 emissions for hydrothermal systems are first exemplified using a small test system, and then simulations on a real hydrothermal system illustrate how these metrics can inform investment and operational decisions. Theoretical and simulation results show that transmission and hydro storage constraints neglect may provide wrong signals for RET investors, missing the incentives to install in areas where the potential for emissions reduction is higher (where renewable energy displaces a larger amount of coal or diesel). Policy makers can use the proposed model to assess the cost-effectiveness of emission reduction policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fossil fuel subsidies are a key barrier for economic development and climate change mitigation. While the plunge in international fuel prices has increased the political will to introduce fossil fuel subsidy reforms, recently introduced reforms may risk backsliding when fuel prices rebound − particularly if they fail to address the underlying mechanisms that create demand for low fossil fuel prices. Extant literature has mostly focused on the consequences of fossil fuel subsidies, including their economic or environmental impact, and the social contract that make their reform difficult. In this paper, we complement the extant literature with a socio-technical perspective of fossil fuel subsidies to explore the systemic mechanisms that often keep subsidies in place and how these mechanisms can be weakened. Specifically, in case studies of the electricity sectors in South Africa and Tunisia, we trace the socio-technical foundations of their fossil fuel subsidy regimes and the potential of renewable energy policy in disrupting this regime We discuss the relevance of our results for national policymakers wishing to implement and international actors wishing to support fossil fuel subsidy reform. In particular, we highlight that the socio-technical perspective of fossil fuel subsidies offers new intervention points for subsidy reform and that policy designs and assistance should strengthen technologies and actors that are most likely to destabilize the fossil fuel subsidy regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to energy can significantly contribute to the development of the living standards of the energy poor. Also if the provision of access to energy is sustainable, i.e. via renewable energy sources, there is an added benefit of contributing to mitigation of climate change. Currently, the percentage of population with access to energy varies significantly between countries and across regions. This is due to the nature of national socio-economic situations and energy resource availability in differing settings. This article addresses issues and hindrances to energy access in regional contexts and also examines, in particular, the prospects of how regional cooperation initiatives linked with climate change mitigation objectives could assist in widening energy access. Existing relevant regional cooperation initiatives that may be upscaled or used as models to widen access to modern energy services are evaluated. Findings are that regional cooperation initiatives linked with climate change mitigation can potentially facilitate widening energy access. However, in order to realise such potential, synergies from regional cooperation that are indirectly linked to energy and wider climate change mitigation programs should be harnessed. Recommendations are made for development of sustainable energy programs in energy deprived regions that will also mitigate climate change impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the use of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) further increases in the coming decades, a growing stream of batteries will reach the end of their service lives. Here we study the potential of those batteries to be used in second-life applications to enable the expansion of intermittent renewable electricity supply in California through the year 2050. We develop and apply a parametric life-cycle system model integrating battery supply, degradation, logistics, and second-life use. We calculate and compare several metrics of second-life system performance, including cumulative electricity delivered, energy balance, greenhouse gas (GHG) balance, and energy stored on invested. We find that second-life use of retired PEV batteries may play a modest, though not insignificant, role in California's future energy system. The electricity delivered by second-life batteries in 2050 under base-case modeling conditions is 15 TWh per year, about 5% of total current and projected electricity use in California. If used instead of natural gas-fired electricity generation, this electricity would reduce GHG emissions by about 7 million metric tons of CO 2 e per year in 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying what developing countries need to address climate change is of great significance for promoting North-South and South-South climate cooperation and implementing the Paris Agreement. In this study, based on questionnaires surveys of 143 representative government officials, experts, scholars, and industry engineers from developing countries who have been engaged in climate change, the current situation and priority requirements of developing countries in terms of policies and actions, technology, financing, capacity building, and international cooperation for addressing climate change were systematically analyzed. We found that 1. Most developing countries have already taken national general actions and sectoral and industry-level actions focus on renewable or clean energy, waste management and recycling, sustainable urban transport and forestry carbon sequestration. 2. The demands for climate change mitigation are mainly concentrated in technology and capital, and the priority areas are energy and electricity and waste management; for climate change adaptation, the demands differ significantly among regions. 3. Developing countries show high preferences for emission reduction and energy-saving technology, solar energy, wind energy and bio-energy, whereas a low preference for supercritical and ultra supercritical power units, nuclear energy and tidal energy. 4. Agroforestry, energy conservation and efficiency, renewable energy and water resources are priority areas for climate change financing. 5. Building institutional capacity, improving technology R&D networks and institutions, formulation and implementation ability of planning schemes, and data statistics and verification are priority areas needed for capacity building. To better address climate change, developing countries need to establish and improve information exchange channels or platforms and strengthen South-South climate cooperation while optimizing the allocation of climate change resources according to the priority needs. • Developing countries' needs to address climate change are systematically analyzed. • Priority areas in terms of technology, capital, capacity building are identified. • Demands for climate change mitigation are concentrated in technology and capital. • Priority technology needs are energy-saving, solar, wind and biomass energy technology. • Need to strengthen South-South climate cooperation according to the priority needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The life cycle climate change impact of a solar microgrid in Sweden was estimated. • Average and marginal emission factors were estimated with explicit system boundaries. • Average and marginal emission factors of electricity use in Sweden differ. • Integration of a solar microgrid into the main grid may contribute to climate change. • The environmental performance of a solar microgrid depends strongly on the context. Microgrids are small-scale electricity networks that integrate distributed electricity generation with consumers and, potentially, with storage devices. There is growing interest in these systems, as they can offer solutions for electrification of remote areas, deployment of distributed renewable energy resources, and decarbonization of electricity supply. However, the potential benefits of microgrids in terms of climate change mitigation have not yet been thoroughly assessed. In this study, Life Cycle Assessment was performed to determine the climate change impact of integrating a solar microgrid system in western Sweden into the Swedish electricity grid. To determine whether replacement of grid electricity with electricity from the microgrid can lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, average and marginal GHG emission factors (EFs) for electricity use were estimated with explicit spatial and temporal resolution, using historical data on electricity generation and trade, and life cycle EFs for electricity generation technologies. The assessment, with both marginal and average EFs, showed that integration of the microgrid into the Swedish electricity grid did not provide GHG emissions abatements, as the electricity from the microgrid displaced grid electricity with lower carbon intensity. It was found that a microgrid without batteries would have lower climate change impact, but would still fail to lower overall GHG emissions. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the methodological approach used for estimation of EFs and the definition of spatial boundaries could influence the obtained results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the energy and climate policy commitments of the European Union, the following targets have been foreseen up to 2030: reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of 40%, improving the energy conversion efficiency of 27%, and producing 27% of the energy from renewable energy sources. Nowadays, thanks to the development of reliable and efficient technologies, several possibilities exist to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such as wind power, solar, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. In the Alpine region, biomass can play a key role for achieving the objectives foreseen by the EU policy strategy. In the last few years, due to the high available potentials of residues from forestry operations and sawmill processing, the Alpine region witnessed the development of centralized biomass district heating plants. The aim of the present study is to assess the environmental impacts of 18 biomass-based plants located in the Alpine region using a Life Cycle Assessment approach and to analyse the current market destination of the wood residues. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews with the stakeholders of the forest-wood supply chain (managers of biomass-based plant, sawmills, forest owners and enterprises). From the environmental point of view, the results of the Life Cycle Assessment (global climate change impact: 5–90 gCO 2 MJ−1) show that the "critical points" in the forest-wood supply chain are: the transport phase (1–54 gCO 2 MJ−1) and the wood processing phase (6–36 gCO 2 MJ−1). The results provided by Life Cycle Assessment can be used to increase the scientific knowledge of the environmental impacts related to the biomass conversion technology and to underline the weak points of the forest-wood supply chain. Furthermore, these results can support the decision makers in defining climate change mitigation strategies at regional and local level. • LCA is a key tool to highlight the environmental critical points of the bioenergy system. • Feedstock origin and biomass-based plants size affects the environmental impacts. • Short wood supply chain has a key role to reduce environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]