Search

This study contributes an empirical investigation of the likelihood that different external threats to a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site occur in combination with each other when site characteristics and location are controlled for. For the purpose of the analysis, the World Heritage database and the UNESCO State of Conservation Reports are used and the nine most frequently appearing external threats are identified. These databases include 6852 site-year observations and 3316 threats over the period 1979–2023. The most commonly identified external threats are illegal activities, with eleven percent of all observations and mining with six percent. Transport infrastructure, tourism and visitor pressure are also common threats. Estimation results based on the multivariate Probit (equation system) model demonstrate that there are strong positive correlations between many pairs of the nine external threats. Most apparent are the links between illegal activities and loss of identity, social cohesion, changes in local population and community, water infrastructure (dams) and farming, as well as illegal activities and land conversion. There are also clear links between tourism and infrastructure. This emphasises that the various threats seldom appear in isolation from each other. Results also highlight that the threats have different drivers. Among the determinants, site characteristics and location are the most important ones. The likelihood of threats is highest for Natural Heritage Sites covered by forests or those in marine and coastal areas, Africa as well as the Arab region. It is also possible to identify a general increase in threats over time, although with a diminishing rate of growth towards the period 2015–2019. Contrary to this development and the general downturn in threats during the Covid-19 pandemic period of 2020–2023, pressure from tourism continues to grow. Methodologically, the results emphasize the need for multivariate Probit models when research goes beyond analyses of descriptive statistics and single equation approaches. • Analysis of 3316 external threats from the UNESCO State of Conservation and World Heritage databases. • Since 1979, external threats to the Natural World Heritage Sites have grown and often appear in combination. • Most commonly identified threats are illegal activities, mining, transport infrastructure and tourism. • Multivariate Probit estimations reveal significant links between illegal activities and land conversion or loss of identity. • Estimations also show a positive significant relationship between tourism and infrastructure. • Site characteristics and location are the most important drivers of threats, especially for forest and coastal sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Solomon Islands and around the Pacific there is commonly a disconnect between government priorities for economic development through resource extraction and community aspirations for local resource management, conservation, and alternative pathways to livelihoods development, which includes tourism. Nowhere is this disconnect more stark than in communities on Rennell Island, within the region's oldest inscribed World Heritage area. These communities have so far resisted extractive industry development but have not yet benefited from inscription. Alternative livelihood opportunities compatible with a conservation economy are a priority. Our research objective was to explore community aspirations and priorities. We used Q-methodology to reveal discourses associated with conservation, livelihoods generation, and drivers of well-being and then evaluated these aspirations in scenarios in a socio-ecological system. We revealed three factors, each aligned with conservation and tourism development with clear opposition to extractive industries. Key differences focussed on immediate personal circumstances, attachment to kastom, and food and water security. Our research points to clear support for the area's continued conservation and for livelihood pathways that might secure this but low capacity to pursue this. Notwithstanding, the communities' patience is wearing thin and there is growing cynicism about the role of World Heritage protection as a route towards livelihoods development. • World Heritage status has not generated tourism-based livelihoods for East Rennell. • Despite this, communities remain wedded to livelihoods built on tourism. • Barriers are apparent, which likely render tourism-driven livelihoods unlikely. • Alternative livelihood options, e.g. REDD+, offer promising alternatives. • Looming natural resource management issues are not reflected in community concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bonin Archipelago is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's World Natural Heritage Site in Japan with a unique ecosystem; however, the invasive rodents preying on endemic species have been a significant concern. The anticoagulant rodenticide, diphacinone, sprayed by the Ministry of the Environment, has succeeded; however, its repeated use leads to rodenticide resistance. This study evaluated the sensitivity by in vivo pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) analysis and physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling to diphacinone in black rats (Rattus rattus) captured on the Bonin Archipelago in February 2022. The Bonin rats exhibited prolonged coagulation time after diphacinone administration. They recovered earlier than susceptible black rats, indicating that Bonin rats were less susceptible, though there were no genetic mutations in Vkorc1 , the target enzyme of diphacinone. After the administration of diphacinone, hepatic expression levels of Fsp1 , identified as the vitamin K reductase, was decreased, however, the Bonin rats exhibited the most minor suppression. The PK analysis showed that the excretion capacity of the Bonin rats was lower than that of the resistant black rats. In the PBPK modeling, the resistant black rats showed higher clearance than the Bonin and susceptible black rats due to high hepatic metabolic capacity. The Bonin rats demonstrated slow absorption and relatively low clearance. This study highlighted the reduced rodenticide-sensitive tendency of wild black rats in the Bonin Archipelago at an in vivo phenotype level. At the same time, they do not have known rodenticide resistance mechanisms, such as hepatic metabolic enhancement or Vkorc1 mutations. It is crucial to monitor the biological levels to evaluate rodenticide sensitivity accurately. [Display omitted] • Evaluation of rodenticide sensitivity in invasive rats in the Bonin Islands, Japan. • Bonin rats showed lower sensitivity characterized by prothrombin time measurement. • No genetic mutations in Vkorc1 : a target enzyme of rodenticides. • Bonin rats exhibited excretion capacities similar to those of sensitive rats. • Diphacinone treatment suppressed the expression of novel vitamin K reductase, Fsp1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cave heritage is often threatened by tourism or even scientific activities, which can lead to irreversible deterioration. We present a preventive conservation monitoring protocol to protect caves with rock art, focusing on La Garma Cave (Spain), a World Heritage Site with valuable archaeological materials and Palaeolithic paintings. This study assessed the suitability of the cave for tourist use through continuous microclimate and airborne particles monitoring, biofilm analysis, aerobiological monitoring and experimental visits. Our findings indicate several factors that make it inadvisable to adapt the cave for tourist use. Human presence and transit within the cave cause cumulative effects on the temperature of environmentally very stable and fragile sectors and significant resuspension of particles from the cave sediments. These environmental perturbations represent severe impacts as they affect the natural aerodynamic control of airborne particles and determine bacterial dispersal throughout the cave. This monitoring protocol provides part of the evidence to design strategies for sustainable cave management. [Display omitted] • Preventive cave conservation needs microclimate and aerobiological monitoring. • Microclimatic disturbance analysis reveals the vulnerability of stable cave areas. • Human transit removes particles from the cave sediments. • Airborne bacteria show a direct relationship with biofilms in the cave sediments. • This protocol can guide decisions on management of rock-art caves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania is part of a globally important archeological and paleoanthropological World Heritage Site location critical to our understanding of modern human evolution. The Ndutu Beds in the upper part of the geological sequence at Olduvai Gorge represent the oldest unit to yield modern Homo sapiens skeletal material and Middle Stone Age technology. However, the timing of the deposition of the Ndutu Beds is poorly constrained at present, which limits our understanding of the paleoenvironments critical for contextualizing H. sapiens and related technologies in the Olduvai Basin. Using a suite of 15 luminescence ages of sedimentary core samples, combined with Bayesian statistics, this study provides a new higher-resolution age-depth model for the deposition of the uppermost Upper Ndutu and Naisiuiu Beds cored by the Olduvai Gorge Coring Project. The luminescence and modeled ages are presented as ±1 σ uncertainties. The Ndutu Beds intersected by the Olduvai Gorge Coring Project cores are dated to between 117.1 ± 17.9 and 45.3 ± 4.2 ka (between 125.9 ± 26.5 and 45.8 ± 8.2 ka modeled ages), while a probable overlying layer of Naisiusiu Beds dates to 23.7 ± 10.9 to 12.1 ± 1.7 ka (25.7 ± 18.9 ka and 12.0 ± 3.4 ka modeled age). Time-averaged accretion rates are derived during this time: (1) initially low rates (<5 cm ka−1) from the bottom of the core at 117.1 ± 17.9 ka up to 95.3 ± 11.1 ka (125.9 ± 26.5 to 95.5 ± 23.3 ka modeled ages); (2) the middle section spanning between 95.3 ± 11.1 and 62.7 ± 5.7 ka (95.5 ± 23.3 to 61.9 ± 10.4 ka modeled ages) with mean rates above 15 cm ka−1; and (3) the last 62.7 ± 5.7 ka (61.9 ± 10.4 ka modeled age) where the accretion rate reduces to below 5 cm ka−1. This reduction can be explained by the evolution of the gorge system that was likely driven by subsidence of the Olbalbal depression and changes in climate, particularly precipitation and resulting lake and base level changes. Older Upper Ndutu and Lower Ndutu Beds are contained within proto-gorges within the modern gorge system. • A new higher-resolution age-depth model is presented for the Upper Ndutu Beds. • The Ndutu Beds date between 117.1 ± 17.9 ka and 23.7 ± 10.9 ka. • A probable overlying layer of Naisiusiu Beds is dated to 12.1 ± 1.7 ka. • Variable time-averaged accretion rates explain the evolution of the gorge system. • Gorge changes are driven by subsidence of Olbalbal depression and climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floating macroalgal rafts can form extensive habitat in coastal waters and support abundant and diverse communities of juvenile fishes. Rafts comprised predominantly of Sargassum spp. are common within the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area, Western Australia, and may be an important transitional habitat for pre-settlement coastal fishes. We had three aims: 1) to quantify the diversity and abundance of fishes associated with Sargassum rafts; 2) to use stable isotopes to determine whether fishes associating with rafts preyed on nearby plankton or on prey associated with Sargassum ; and 3) to determine whether the food web fishes relied upon was ultimately supported by primary production of Sargassum or planktonic phytoplankton (measured as seston). Fishes and macroinvertebrates associating with Sargassum rafts, zooplankton, and seston were collected at six sites in the Ningaloo Marine Park and analysed for δ15N and δ13C, and the diets of the most common fishes were analysed using MixSIAR. Fishes were more abundant around macroalgal rafts than in open water. Eleven species of juvenile fishes associated with Sargassum rafts, with one species (Histrio histrio (Antennariidae)) represented by juveniles and adults. Four of the five fishes most sampled around Sargassum spp. rafts, (Abudefduf vaigiensis (Pomacentridae) , Helotes sexlineatus (Terapontidae), Colurodontis paxmani (Monacanthidae) and Petroscirtes breviceps (Blenniidae)) had generalist diets whose food webs were ultimately supported by greater contributions of primary production from Sargassum spp. (55–72%) than planktonic seston. H. histrio was predominantly piscivorous but still derived most (64%) of its organic matter indirectly from Sargassum spp. Our results reveal the importance of Sargassum rafts as habitat that provides shelter and food for juvenile fishes and adult H. histrio. Moreover, the prevalence of juvenile fishes associating with Sargassum rafts highlights a bidirectional form of benthic-pelagic coupling whereby macroalgae that detach from the benthos provide habitat and a trophic subsidy for pelagic juvenile fishes before they the transition into benthic coastal habitats. [Display omitted] • Floating Sargassum rafts support diverse assemblages of fishes. • Fishes associating with rafts derive >50% of their organic carbon from Sargassum. • Juvenile fishes use Sargassum rafts as habitat and food. • Sargassum provides a trophic subsidy to pelagic ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological invasion poses a major threat to biodiversity and conservation efforts in protected areas. The Greater Shennongjia Area (GSA) is one of China's 16 key areas for biodiversity, as stated in the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. However, the local authorities lack appropriate data on the extent and impact of exotic species in protected areas, as well as lack the capacity and motivation to properly plan for exotic species strategy and action plan to support both prevention, control as well as management of exotic plants in their jurisdiction. In addition, while most previous studies have focused on exotic species in protected areas, little effort has been devoted to specifying which environmental factors contribute to the difference between protected and non-protected areas. Here, we explored the current distribution pattern of the richness and abundance of exotic species in relation to environmental variables within the GSA. In total, we found 84 exotic plant species, of which 41 exotic species within the protected areas, in 64 genera and 27 families, predominately from Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae. The generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) revealed that the protection status and the distance to human settlements were the most important predictors of exotic plant richness and abundance in the GSA. Our results showed that the average exotic plant richness and coverage in the protected areas were 22% and 31% lower than outside the protected areas, respectively. Such differences were probably the result of anthropogenic activities (e.g., proximity to human settlements and the proportion of cropland). Although protected areas provide an important barrier against plant invasions, invasion may be a tricky issue for protected area management in the future. The Alliance of Protected areas in Western Hubei and Eastern Chongqing will need to further consider stringent control and management strategies for the entry of exotic species into protected areas to effectively maintain the continuity and integrity of the GSA's biodiversity and ecosystems. Our results provided guidance and support to enhance the capacity of scientific and effective management and sustainable development of the Shennongjia World Natural Heritage Site and other protected areas. • 41 exotic plants, 68.3% of which are invasive inside the protected areas in the GSA. • Protected areas are lower on the richness and abundance of exotic plants. • The less anthropogenic pressures in protected areas, the less exotic plants invasion. • Exotic plants are threatening the OUV of Shennongjia World Natural Heritage Site. • The Alliance of Protected Areas should proactively defend against exotic species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil quality and function in forest environments are influenced by the interaction of soil-forming parameters and silvicultural systems. Hyrcanian forests were recently accepted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which extends across an area of approximately 1.8 million hectares and ascend to an elevation of 2800 m above sea level (m.a.s.l). In these woodlands, Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) is the predominant tree species and could be observed at 700–1500 m.a.s.l., and occur on different parent rocks. Shelterwood and single-tree selection techniques have been the primary management methods for beech forests for the past forty years. Studies investigating the impacts of silvicultural systems have not yet been done on soil and forest floor features on different bedrock geology and altitudes. Therefore, in this study, we examined the influence of single-tree selection and shelterwood methods, 25 years after employing those methods, on soil quality and function compared to control areas (intact forests) in Hyrcanian beech stands. For this purpose, 15 forest floor (30 × 30 cm) and topsoil (0–10 cm depth) samples in each silvicultural systems (i.e., single-tree selection and shelterwood methods and control zones) × 4 regions (including Rasht, Nowshahr, Sari and Gorgan) × 4 altitude levels (with averages of 800, 1000, 1200 and 1400 m.a.s.l.) were considered. According to our findings, the investigated forest regions, forest floor and soil characteristics across various locations spots could be separated by principal component analysis output, and more than 85% of the variance was explained by the first and second axes. The structural equation model showed that the region, altitude and silvicultural systems had an effective role in the changes in soil biological activities by influencing the forest floor, and the soil physicochemical features. Based upon the network model, the C/N ratio, the sand content, the soil aggregate stability, the available K, the fulvic acid, and the Acarina density were found to be prominent factors with regard to soil function. In the control sites, increased soil organic material fractions, microbial/enzyme and biota activities were detected, particularly at the lower altitudes of the Nowshahr site, which had geological formations of dolomite and calcic layers. Taken together, it seems that the single-tree method, commonly referred to as the close-to-nature technique produces more suitable conditions for soil functioning compared to the shelterwood management approach. Silvicultural systems, bedrock geology and altitude can have major detrimental effects on soil function and fertility, over the long-term, impacts may increase with harvest intensity. [Display omitted] • We unraveled the drivers of soil function in old-growth Hyrcanian beech forests. • The unmanaged areas had higher thickness layer of forest floor especially in the high altitudes. • Soil N transformation were significantly higher under unmanaged areas and low altitudes. • Low altitudes of regions with geological formations of dolomite and calcic layers enhanced soil function. • Single-tree system has provided better conditions for soil function than in shelterwood management method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the impact of land use transformation and anti-flood structural infrastructure on flood situations in four flood-prone districts of Thailand's Ayutthaya: Phra Nakhon Si Ayudhya (PNSA), Bang Ban , Phak Hai , and Sena. PNSA is a UNESCO world heritage city and the cultural and economic hub of Ayutthaya. The finding showed that a large proportion of agricultural land was converted into commercial areas to accommodate economic development and population growth. Furthermore, construction of anti-flood structure infrastructure in PNSA increased flood intensity and duration in three neighboring districts as more floodwater was diverted to the peri-urban area. In addition, this research looks into the social impacts related to land use change and anti-flood structural infrastructure. • Land use has undergone transformation from agriculture to industry and commercial. • Urban infrastructure and anti-flood measures contributed to more severe and prolonged flood situations in neighboring districts. • Land use and anti-flood infrastructure impact to resident in peri-urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural ecosystems hold great place within the hearts and lives of people, particularly those within which people live and work. However, whether people equally value natural ecosystems that they regularly frequent is effectively unknown. Such knowledge would greatly assist natural resource managers to better understand what they are protecting, why and for whom. In this paper we look at the different values that people hold for different ecosystems within the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). We test the relationship between eight different cultural values (using ecosystem services framing), and the use of seven different ecosystems (beaches, creeks and estuaries, islands and cays, inshore reefs, mid-shelf and outer reefs, open water, and shipwrecks) from face-to-face surveys of 1934 residents living within the GBR. We also look at whether the relationships that people have with each ecosystem inspires them to; (i) do more to help protect the GBR, (ii) learn more about the GBR, and (iii) feel personally affected if the health of the GBR declines. Results suggest that there are common reasons why all ecosystems are valued. All seven ecosystems were valued because they provide identity, quality of life and well-being, and inspired people to do more to help protect the GBR. Many were valued for their desirable and active way of life, learning about the environment through scientific discoveries, and learning about the condition of the GBR. However, some ecosystems were valued for special reasons. People that used beaches tended to have more pride in the World Heritage Area status of the GBR and appreciated the aesthetics of the GBR. People that used the mid-shelf and open-water areas were more likely to value biodiversity and aesthetics qualities. People that used inshore reefs were more likely to value economic benefits from the GBR. All residents said that they would be personally affected if the health of the GBR declined, except for those that used beaches, creeks and estuaries. Levels of concern for each of the ecosystems within the GBR varied, where people were more concerned about inshore areas than they were about coral reef condition. Specifically, people were most concerned about the level of rubbish on the beaches in their region and least about mangroves. These results suggest that, even though the GBR is valued in its entirety for many reasons, the GBR is not perceived as an entire ecosystem, but that people have different relationships within it. We discuss how environmental sustainability might be optimised through understanding and incentivising the multi-functionality of landscapes. • The GBR contains many sub-ecosystems, which are valued by people to different extents. • People value all sub-ecosystems for identity, lifestyle and well-being, and for specific reasons. • People are more concerned about rubbish on beaches than coral reef condition. • All sub-ecosystems can inspire people to better protect them. • These results can help managers understand what they are protecting, why and for whom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After successful invasions in the Caribbean and Mediterranean, lionfish (Pterois spp.) have recently invaded another important biogeographical region —the Brazilian Province. In this article, we discuss this new invasion, focusing on a roadmap for urgent mitigation of the problem, as well as focused research and management strategies. The invasion in Brazil is already in the consolidation stage, with 352 individuals recorded so far (2020–2023) along 2766 km of coastline. This includes both juveniles and adults, including egg-bearing females, ranging in length from 9.1 to 38.5 cm. Until now, most of the records in the Brazilian coast occurred in the equatorial southwestern Atlantic (99%), mainly on the Amazon mesophotic reefs (15% of the records), northeastern coast of Brazil (45%), and the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (41%; an UNESCO World Heritage Site with high endemism rate). These records cover a broad depth range (1–110 m depth), twelve protected areas, eight Brazilian states (Amapá, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, and Pernambuco) and multiple habitats (i.e., mangrove estuaries, shallow-water and mesophotic reefs, seagrass beds, artificial reefs, and sandbanks), indicating a rapid and successful invasion process in Brazilian waters. In addition, the lack of local knowledge of rare and/or cryptic native species that are potentially vulnerable to lionfish predation raises concerns regarding the potential overlooked ecological impacts. Thus, we call for an urgent integrated approach with multiple stakeholders and solution-based ecological research, real-time inventories, update of environmental and fishery legislation, participatory monitoring supported by citizen science, and a national and unified plan aimed at decreasing the impact of lionfish invasion. The experience acquired by understanding the invasion process in the Caribbean and Mediterranean will help to establish and prioritize goals for Brazil. [Display omitted] • Records from 2020 to 2023 (at least 352 animals) show that the lionfish invasion is accelerating. • Lionfish was reported in eight Brazilian states, multiple habitats, and 11 marine protected areas. • Records comprise mature and large lionfish individuals (∼38 cm) never previously detected. • The slow and ineffective actions contribute to a fast uncontrolled scenario and escalation of impacts. • A management plan is needed for controlling the spread of lionfish in the Brazilian coast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzed how environmental, temporal, and spatial variables influenced the distribution and diversity of waterbird assemblages during the dry and rainy seasons in a subtropical estuarine complex in southern Brazil, a world heritage site. From March 2020 to February 2021, we determined the alpha and beta diversities of waterbird in the Paranaguá Estuarine Complex (PEC), southern Brazil, by sampling 36 transects distributed in three bays. Altogether we recorded 46 species distributed in 17 families and eight genera. Despite the similar species richness observed in the dry versus rainy season (41 and 39 species, respectively), we found a weak seasonal influence on the composition of the waterbird assemblage due to the presence of migratory species. Species richness was positively related with water temperature and dissolved oxygen during the wet season. While in the dry season, we recorded a negative relationship between species diversity and turbidity. Despite the great diversity of waterbird species recorded in the PEC, we did not detect a consistent pattern of alpha and beta diversity responses. Balanced variation in abundance was the component that most contributed to total beta diversity, which is consistent for highly mobile species that roam heterogeneous landscapes. Due to their high mobility, waterbird quickly track dynamic features in time and space. The lack of apparent patterns in species distribution and alpha and beta diversity may reflect this dynamic. Our findings reinforce the need to use robust, long-term databases to understand and monitor beta diversity, providing information to support practical actions to protect local and regional biodiversity. Therefore, strategic management plans that use integrated protection networks and aim at biodiversity conservation at different scales must consider these results. [Display omitted] • Subtropical estuaries are dynamic environments with well-defined environmental gradients; resources vary in time and space, driving the movement of waterbirds. • The abundance of resources, the detection capacity and accessibility of them are equaly important. • Balanced variation in abundance is the dominant beta diversity component for waterbird assemblages in a subtropical estuarine system. • Understanding beta diversity is essential for protecting waterbird diversity at many scales and can directly assist in conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss an archaeological research of employing deep learning (DL) based object detection on high-resolution aerial photographs to discover Nasca geoglyphs, which have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Owing to extremely limited archaeological ground truth data and their differences in scale and design, it is difficult to detect new geoglyphs merely training DL on the known geoglyphs. Therefore, we developed a pipeline of DL to mine such data and address the challenges unique to archaeology. With this approach, we identified four new geoglyphs in the northern area of the Nasca Pampa, namely: a humanoid, a pair of legs, a fish, and a bird. The geoglyphs got verified through on-site surveys. We could identify new geoglyph's candidates approximately 21 times faster than with the naked eye alone. The approach would be beneficial for the future of archaeology in a new paradigm of combining field survey and AI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intraspecific variation in phenotypic traits of seagrasses enables populations to tolerate varying environmental conditions and facilitates population persistence and expansion. Significant variation in seagrass population morphometrics may reflect highly plastic responses to abiotic and biotic factors, allowing populations to acclimate to changing environmental conditions. Alternatively, morphological variation may arise from developmental canalisation or genetically determined fixed traits, which may inhibit future plasticity and adaptive flexibility to changing environmental conditions. Understanding the drivers behind intraspecific variation in phenotypic traits is important for seagrass restoration practitioners when identifying populations that may provide suitable donor propagules with high adaptability to new sites or propagules that may be more resilient to future environmental changes. This study aimed to investigate whether variation in morphological traits of four subpopulations of Zostera muelleri on the Curtis Coast of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Queensland, correlated with meadow-specific environmental conditions and whether this varied between seasons. Morphometric analysis was conducted on Z. muelleri apical shoots, sampled during the spring growing/flowering season and autumn senescent season. Meadow-specific environmental conditions were assessed using historical data dating back to 2008 and environmental simulation models developed for predicting wave, and light conditions. Results indicated that Z. muelleri subpopulations exhibited distinct morphologies throughout their seasonal growth cycle that may correlate with meadow-specific differences in sediment composition, hydrodynamic stress, and light availability. However, further investigation is required to understand if expressed morphological traits are reflective of environmentally driven phenotypic plasticity or genetically predetermined fixed traits (local adaptation or developmental canalisation). Knowledge gained from further studies into the drivers behind the observed variations in morphological traits would increase the understanding of the importance of trait-based selection of propagules for seagrass restoration meadows' resilience and persistence. • Morphometrics and meadow-specific environmental conditions of Zostera muelleri subpopulations were analysed.. • Distinct morphological variations amongst subpopulations were detected throughout the seasonal growth cycle. • Morphological variations may correlate with differences in sediment composition, hydrology, and light availability. • Seagrass propagule trait-based selection may ultimately increase the success rate of seagrass restoration projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to their remoteness or boundless nature, activities at Natural Heritage Sites are difficult to monitor. In this study, two digital measures of the interest in Natural Word Heritage Sites are compared: one ex ante based on the number of Wikipedia page views of the site and another ex post derived from actual visitation as measured by the number of Instagram posts. The entire UNESCO database, which includes 248 Natural World Heritage Sites is linked to the 2.8 million Wikipedia page views, the 58 million Instagram posts and the Köppen extreme climate zone categories. Quantile regressions reveal that the main association in common for the two indicators is the risk of the site losing its inscription. Presence in the UNESCO Danger list is associated with reduced interest in a site, particularly in the number of Instagram posts and in the top quartile of Wikipedia views. Years since inscription is also an important explanatory variable, especially for the Instagram posts and the Wikipedia views in the top quartile. The UNESCO selection criterion of outstanding beauty only relates to the Instagram posts. Climate zone is mainly linked to the ex post variable and its upper quartile, where the sites with the most attention are found. Wikipedia views are also negatively associated with sites in Africa, the Arab countries and Latin America. Elevation, size of the area as well as kind of site are all variables not significant. There is a significant correlation between the two outcome variables with a coefficient of 0.5. While the Instagram posts relate clearly to actual visits, the Wikipedia page views is considered a possible leading indicator of future interest in a site. • Digital ex ante and ex post interest in UNESCO natural world heritage sites benchmarked using quantile regressions. • Information on 2.8 million Wikipedia page views and 58 million Instagram posts is used. • Significant predictors are the UNESCO danger list, age as inscribed and selection criterion exceptional beauty. • Natural sites in extreme climate zones receive fewer Instagram posts. • Ex ante and ex post measures complement each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrass habitats provide critical ecosystem services, yet there is ongoing concern over mounting pressures and continuing degradation. Defining a desired state for these habitats is a key step in implementing appropriate management but is often difficult given the challenges of available data and an evaluation of where to set benchmarks. We use more than 20 years of historical seagrass biomass data (1995–2018) for the diverse seagrass communities of Australia's Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) to develop desired state benchmarks. Desired state for seagrass biomass was estimated for 25 of 36 previously defined seagrass communities with the remainder having insufficient data. Desired state varied by more than one order of magnitude between community types and was influenced by the mix of species in the communities and the range of environmental conditions. We identify a historical, decadal-scale cycle of decline with recovery to desired state in coastal intertidal communities. In contrast a number of the estuary and coastal subtidal communities have not recovered to desired state biomass. Understanding a historical context is critically important for setting benchmarks and making informed management decisions on the present state of seagrass in the GBRWHA. The approach we have developed is scalable for monitoring, management and assessment of pressures for other management areas and for other jurisdictions. Our results guide conservation planning through prioritization of the at-risk seagrass communities that are continuing to fall below their desired state. • Changes in biomass of seagrass communities were examined. • We estimate a desired state of biomass for each seagrass community. • We identify decadal-scale trends of loss and recovery for some communities. • In recent years desired state has not been attained for many communities. • Our approach enables the prioritization of management activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The consistency and environmental correlates of habitat- and season-related differences among shallow-water fish assemblages inhabiting estuarine beaches (EB) and tidal flats (TF) were examined in the subtropical Paranaguá estuary, which borders a World Heritage listed area. Assemblages were diurnally sampled each month (May 2003–March 2004) using small-meshed beach seines. Forty-six and 49 species were captured at EB (24 families) and TF (23 families), with most individuals at the latter (66 and 54% by number and biomass). Resident fishes accounted for 74% of individuals, but only 31% of all species. Most species were juvenile marine transients, but occurred sporadically and in low numbers. Three residents ( Sphoeroides testudineus , Atherinella brasiliensis and Sphoeroides greeleyi ) dominated assemblages and contributed the most to the index of relative importance of each habitat. Habitat-related differences in assemblages and key population parameters were complex and generally depended on the month sampled rather than water salinity or temperature (owing to comparable temporal variability). Ocean proximity was probably the cause of some differences, with more recruits of marine species early in the wet season at EB, but later at TF. Nevertheless, some resident gobiids and paralichthyids displayed habitat partitioning, possibly related to sediment preferences. There were strong seasonal differences in assemblages, primarily due to more juveniles of resident and transient species during the wet and possibly reflecting more optimal conditions for the young-of-the-year survival due to increased primary and secondary productivity. Environmental correlates of salinity and temperature with assemblage parameters were generally weak, but increasing water temperature prior to the wet season may be a key driver for reproduction, so that larvae are delivered during the wet season. The shallow, low-energy sandy beaches and tidal flats are used by a large diversity of fish, and consequently need to be considered in conservation and biodiversity estuary management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores how human disturbance and hydrologic elements affect the spatial distribution pattern of plant diversity in the watershed, taking Shamu watershed in the World Natural Heritage Site as a case study. Spatial analysis of multisource remote sensing and plant diversity plots data were conducted using linear mixed effects models and structural equation models. Results revealed that the distribution of plant diversity in the watershed is mainly affected by human disturbance. However, under similar human disturbance levels, hydrologic elements also affect the plant diversity within the watershed. The topographic undulation and surface runoff significantly promote plant diversity, while the river network density, the watershed shape factor, the river longitudinal gradient do not. The influence of topographic undulation is more obvious than that of runoff on plant diversity, but the effect of topographic undulation and runoff on plant diversity is getting weaker from upstream to downstream within the watershed. In addition, the impact of hydrologic elements on plant diversity is mainly regulated by environmental factors Pre and Tem. The findings clarify how human disturbance and hydrologic elements affect plant diversity distribution within the watershed, optimizing the conservation theory of plant diversity resources and scientifically guiding the region's sustainable development. • Human disturbance contributes most to plant diversity. • Surface runoff and topographic undulation promote plant diversity. • Precipitation and temperature regulate the hydrological impact on plant diversity. • Weaker restrictions of hydrologic elements on plant diversity in downstream. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The River Elbe is responsible for influxes of contaminants into the Wadden Sea World Heritage Site. We investigated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), oxychlordane (OxC), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexanes ( α-, β-, γ -HCHs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in blood and feathers from Eurasian oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus ; n =28) at the Elbe and compared it with a non-riverine site about 90 km further north. (1) Mean levels of all contaminants in feathers and serum were significantly higher at the river (∑PCBs: 27.6 ng/g feather, 37.0 ng/ml serum; ∑DDTs: 5.3 ng/g feather, 4.4 ng/ml serum) compared with the non-riverine site (∑PCBs: 6.5 ng/g feather, 1.2 ng/ml serum; ∑DDTs: 1.4 ng/g feather, 0.5 ng/ml serum). Mean ∑HCH and HCB levels were <1.8 ng/g in feather and <1.8 ng/ml in serum at both sites. (2) Levels of most detectable compounds in serum and feathers were significantly related, but levels were not consistently higher in either tissue. (3) There was no significant relationship between trophic level in individual oystercatchers (expressed as δ15N) or the degree of terrestrial feeding (expressed as δ13C) and contaminant loads. (4) PBDEs were not detected in significant amounts at either site. The results of this study indicate that the outflow from one of Europe′s largest river systems is associated with significant historical contamination, reflected by the accumulation of contaminants in body tissues in a coastal benthivore predator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Republic of Kiribati's Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA), located in the equatorial central Pacific, is the largest and deepest UNESCO World Heritage site on earth. Created in 2008, it was the first Marine Protected Area (MPA) of its kind (at the time of inception, the largest in the world) and includes eight low-lying islands, shallow coral reefs, submerged shallow and deep seamounts and extensive open-ocean and ocean floor habitat. Due to their isolation, the shallow reef habitats have been protected de facto from severe exploitation, though the surrounding waters have been continually fished for large pelagics and whales over many decades. PIPA was created under a partnership between the Government of Kiribati and the international non-governmental organizations--Conservation International and the New England Aquarium. PIPA has a unique conservation strategy as the first marine MPA to use a conservation contract mechanism with a corresponding Conservation Trust established to be both a sustainable financing mechanism and a check-and-balance to the oversight and maintenance of the MPA. As PIPA moves forward with its management objectives, it is well positioned to be a global model for large MPA design and implementation in similar contexts. The islands and shallow reefs have already shown benefits from protection, though the pending full closure of PIPA (and assessments thereof) will be critical for determining success of the MPA as a refuge for open-ocean pelagic and deep-sea marine life. As global ocean resources are continually being extracted to support a growing global population, PIPA's closure is both timely and of global significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1972 World Heritage Convention (WHC) and 1994 Global Strategy aim to preserve the outstanding universal value of internationally important cultural and natural sites within a "representative, balanced and credible" network of highly-protected areas. Increasing human pressures and shortfalls in representation have been documented across the World Heritage network, particularly in terrestrial and cultural sites, threatening the integrity and primary goals of the WHC. However, the conservation status of current and tentative (i.e., proposed) marine natural World Heritage areas (mnWHA) remains relatively unknown. We assessed the extent of recent (2013) and historical (2008–2013) cumulative human impacts and several metrics of representation (country, continent, ecoregion, wilderness, and 'at-risk' species) within existing and tentative mnWHAs. We found moderate yet increasing cumulative human impacts across most existing sites, and high or very high impacts across the majority of tentative sites. Climate change impacts comprised nearly 75% of impact scores, on average, and differences between land- and marine-based impacts across sites could help prioritise management decisions. Over 75% of marine ecoregions and 80% of 'at-risk' species considered in this study have no representation within the existing sites. We outline how prioritizing representation across tentative sites for future World Heritage listing could greatly increase these metrics. We urge the WHC to adopt quantitative, systematic and transparent evaluations of how current and tentative sites contribute to the overarching goals of maintaining a representative World Heritage network and preserving outstanding universal value for future generations. • Threats and geographic biases are prevalent in marine World Heritage areas (mnWHA). • Most marine ecoregions and at-risk species are not represented in existing mnWHAs. • Cumulative human impacts are increasing in 73% of existing mnWHAs. • In most tentative mnWHAs, impacts remain high but are increasing at a lower rate. • Strategic listing of tentative sites could close representation and conservation gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surfaces of historical stone monuments are visibly covered with a layer of colonizing microorganisms and their degradation products. In this study, a metadata analysis was conducted using the microbial sequencing data available from NCBI database to determine the diversity, biodeterioration potential and functionality of the stone microbiome on important world cultural heritage sites under four different climatic conditions. The retrieved stone microbial community composition in these metagenomes shows a clear association between climate types of the historical monuments and the diversity and taxonomic composition of the stone microbiomes. Shannon diversity values showed that microbial communities on stone monuments exposed to dry climate were more diverse than those under humid ones. In particular, functions associated with photosynthesis and UV resistance were identified from geographical locations under different climate types. The distribution of key microbial determinants responsible for stone deterioration was linked to survival under extreme environmental conditions and biochemical capabilities and reactions. Among them, biochemical reactions of the microbial nitrogen and sulfur cycles were most predominant. These stone-dwelling microbiomes on historical stone monuments were highly diverse and self-sustaining driven by energy metabolism and biomass accumulation. And metabolic products of the internal geomicrobiological nitrogen cycling on these ancient monuments play a unique role in the biodeterioration of stone monuments. These results highlight the significance of identifying the essential microbial biochemical reactions to advance the understanding of stone biodeterioration for protection management. [Display omitted] • A metadata analysis of microbiota was conducted for 4 global climate types with 12 samples. • A significant difference in the alpha diversity was detected among the 4 different climates. • Important biochemical functions are related to survival and major element cycling. • N transformation reactions of ammonia/ammonium oxidation and reduction were particularly active. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that the social and economic sustainability of rural areas is highly based on the protection of natural resources, biodiversity and human health, simple-operated and cost-effective wastewater treatment systems, like artificial constructed wetlands (CWs), are widely proposed for minimizing the environmental and human impact of both water and soil pollution. Considering that the optimization of wastewater treatment processes is vital for the reduction of effluents toxic potential, there is imperative need to establish appropriate management strategies for ensuring CW performance and operational efficiency. To this end, the present study aimed to assess the operational efficiency of a horizontal free water surface CW (HFWS-CW) located in a world heritage area of Western Greece, via a twelve-month duration Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE)-like approach, including both chemical and biological tracking tools. Conventional chemical tracking, by means of pH, conductivity, total COD, and nitrogen-derived components, like nitrates and ammonia–nitrogen, were monthly recorded in both influents and effluents to monitor whether water quality standards are maintained, and to assess potent CW operational deficiencies occurring over time. In parallel, Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) bioassays were thoroughly applied, using freshwater algae and higher plant species (producers), crustaceans and rotifers (consumers), as well as human lymphocytes (in terms of Cytokinesis Block Micronucleus assay) to evaluate the acute and short-term toxic and hazardous potential of both influents and effluents. The integrated analysis of abiotic (physicochemical parameters) and biotic (toxic endpoints) parameters, as well as the existence of "cause-effect" interrelations among them, revealed that CW operational deficiencies, mainly based on poorly removal rates, could undermine the risk posed by treated sewage. Those findings reinforce the usage of WET testing, thus giving rise to the importance of applying appropriate water management strategies and optimization actions, like oxygen enrichment of surface and bottom of HFWS-CW basins, expansion of the available land, the enhancement of bed depth and seasonal harvesting of plants, for ensuring sewage quality, in favor of water resources protection and sustainable growth in rural areas. [Display omitted] • Constructed wetland (CW) performance was recorded via a TIE-like approach. • Whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing and chemical tracking were performed. • Chemical tracking in poorly operated CWs could undermine the risk of treated sewage. • TIE-like approach, including biological tracking, improves the CW performance. • Integrating abiotic and WET data could favor CW optimization and water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Early Pleistocene site of Swartkrans in South Africa's Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site has been significant for our understanding of the evolution of both early Homo and Paranthropus , as well as the earliest archaeology of southern Africa. Previous attempts to improve a faunal age estimate of the earliest deposit, Member 1, had produced results obtained with uranium-lead dating (U–Pb) on flowstones and cosmogenic burial dating of quartz, which placed the entire member in the range of >1.7/1.8 Ma and <2.3 Ma. In 2014, two simple burial dates for the Lower Bank, the earliest unit within Member 1, narrowed its age to between ca. 1.8 Ma and 2.2 Ma. A new dating program using the isochron method for burial dating has established an absolute age of 2.22 ± 0.09 Ma for a large portion of the Lower Bank, which can now be identified as containing the earliest Oldowan stone tools and fossils of Paranthropus robustus in South Africa. This date agrees within one sigma with the U–Pb age of 2.25 ± 0.08 Ma previously published for the flowstone underlying the Lower Bank and confirms a relatively rapid rate of accumulation for a large portion of the talus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Savanna fires occurring in sub-Saharan Africa account for over 60% of global fire extent, of which more than half occurs in the Southern Hemisphere contributing ~29% of global fire emissions. Building on experience in reducing savanna fire emissions in fire-prone north Australian savannas through implementation of an internationally accredited 'savanna burning' emissions abatement methodology, we explore opportunities and challenges associated with the application of a similar approach to incentivise emissions reduction in fire-prone southern African savannas. We first show that for a focal region covering seven contiguous countries, at least 80% of annual savanna large fire (>250 ha) extent and emissions occur under relatively severe late dry season (LDS) fire-weather conditions, predominantly in sparsely inhabited areas. We then assess the feasibility of adapting the Australian emissions abatement methodology through exploratory field studies at the Tsodilo Hills World Heritage site in north-west Botswana, and the Niassa Special Reserve in northern Mozambique. Our assessment demonstrates that application of a savanna burning emissions abatement method focused on the undertaking of strategically located early dry season (EDS) burning to reduce LDS wildfire extent and resultant emissions meets key technical criteria, including: LDS fine fuels tend to be markedly greater than EDS fuels given seasonal leaf litter inputs; LDS fires tend to be significantly more severe and combust more fuels; methane and nitrous oxide emission factors are essentially equivalent in EDS and LDS periods under cured fuel conditions. In discussion we consider associated key implementation challenges and caveats that need to be addressed for progressing development of savanna burning methods that incentivise sustainable fire management, reduce emissions, and support community livelihoods in wildfire-dominated southern African savannas. • Savanna wildfires in southern Africa contribute globally significant greenhouse gas emissions. • We assess the technical feasibility of applying a savanna burning emissions reduction method. • Based on field assessments in Botswana and Mozambique we find that such a method is applicable. • Despite this, considerable implementation challenges are involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coastal aquifers of Sundarbans, an UNESCO world biodiversity heritage site, are highly vulnerable due to changing climatic conditions, intensification and increasing frequency of extreme climate events and uncontrolled abstraction of groundwater. The exchange of solutes between hydraulically connective shallow and deep aquifers, the seawater intrusion and the role of growing population are poorly understood in the Sundarbans. This study aims to address the solute exchange (Cl−, Sr2+, and salinity) process between surface water and groundwater (SW-GW) at local to regional scale under variable hydraulic head conditions, where annual rainfall is declining and population density is increasing [population 573 (1991) to 819 (2011)/Km2]. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) in combination with salinity and δ18O data was used to address the exchange of solutes between SW-GW in a hydraulic continuation. The results revealed that regionally, the Cl− concentration of Sundarbans shows an increasing trend (average 329–351 mg/L) with declining groundwater levels (⁓3 m). Local, depth-dependent study depicting there is a predominant exchange of Sr2+ between shallow depth [D1: 14–25 and D2: 30–50 m below ground level (m bgl)] with seawater (Sr2+: 30–85 μM), which is possibly absent at greater depths (D3:115 and D4: 333 m bgl). The recorded Sr2+ content ranged from 25 to 102 and 16 to 78 μM for shallow depth D1 and D2, respectively, whereas, the Sr2+ concentrations ranged from 1.4 to 6.8 and 1.2 to 5.7 μM for D3 and D4, respectively. The ERT data showed progressively increasing resistivity with increasing depth, similar to high salinity and enriched δ18O at shallow depths and depleted δ18O with low salinity at higher depth reflects the continuous distribution of solutes, which is possibly a result of local downward migration of contaminated shallow brackish water within this physically disconnected zone. The lateral and vertical transportation of solutes in variable hydraulic head conditions would be a measure of drinking water threat in present-day and in imminent future for millions of inhabitants near the coastal area. • Shallow groundwater of Sundarbans is unsuitable for household use. • Cl-content of deep groundwater of Sundarbans is increasing. • Groundwater level of Sundarbans is continuously declining. • Groundwater salinization leading to drinking water vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors explore a new approach to monitoring patches of ground with accentuated desert conditions, here called "parcels of desertification", resulting from the relation between albedo and surface temperature values. The territory of the El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve in northwestern Sonora, Mexico serves as the example to substantiate the procedure. The region is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a feature that guarantees minimum anthropogenic impact in the reserve. The results indicate that the approach was successful in identifying only one parcel of desertification in the study area. The parcel appears annually, though it varies in extent and intensity, when NDVI falls below the values 0.09–0.10 in the spring dry periods (April–June) of 2000–2017. This occurs when the radiation mechanism of surface temperature regulation begins to dominate in relation to the evapotranspiration mechanism. Its localization is practically constant year after year, indicating that it is climatically conditioned, i.e., is not caused by anthropogenic pressure. The intensity of desertification in the parcel has a significant upward trend. Two types of a seasonal course of intensity are established, depending on the change of the SOI sign in the spring. • A new approach to monitoring parcels of desertification is proposed. • The parcel of desertification appears annually, though it varies in extent and intensity. • The parcel of desertification is climatically conditioned. • Two types of a seasonal course of intensity of the parcel are established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Abandoned farmlands in paddy rice field has increased due to the social, financial reasons. • Farmers should grow rice and clean their common waterway to maintain the landscape of paddy rice field. • We build an agent-based model to study balancing combinations of the two efforts. • We find that the neighbor-based management is effective to sustain the cultivation. The evolution of group cooperation is still an evolutionary puzzle and has been studied from the perspective of not only evolutionary ecology but also social sciences. Some socio-ecological problems are caused by collapse of group cooperation. By applying theoretical studies about the evolution of cooperation, we can elucidate what causes the problems and find solutions. One of the appropriate examples is maintaining rice paddy field landscapes, which are a grand spectacle in Asia, and some are UNESCO world heritage sites. These magnificent landscapes and the associated biodiversity are at risk of abandonment for social and financial reasons. Rice paddy fields can be preserved not only by regular cultivation, which requires farmers to invest effort in cultivation, but also by the maintenance of common facilities such as irrigation canals. To investigate how this landscape might be preserved, we developed an agent-based model in which each farmer makes two types of efforts: an effort for land cultivation and an effort for collective action such as common facility maintenance. Additionally, we consider the side effects of rice production such as field deterioration from abandonment and water use competition. These factors determine the utility of each player who imitates the level of efforts necessary to invest in land cultivation and common facility maintenance of one with higher utility. This decision-making of each player can be described by the evolutionary game theory. We find that maintenance effort promotes cultivation effort, but not vice versa, even though we usually consider that each farmer's cultivation effort makes rice field landscape sustainable. We also find that if players and their near neighbors are responsible for maintaining their common facilities together, they continue to maintain them and cultivate, but if all players are responsible for maintaining all facilities in the whole farmland, players are likely to quit facility maintenance and stop cultivation. Competition for water use among all players, however, promotes cultivation more than competition among neighbors only. Therefore, rice paddy field landscapes can be sustainable if neighbors, but not the whole players, are responsible for maintaining their common facilities and cooperate together, and if the water usage of all players, but not neighbors, influences the productivity of each rice field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) includes one of the world's largest areas of seagrass (35,000 km 2 ) encompassing approximately 20% of the world's species. Mapping and monitoring programs sponsored by the Australian and Queensland Governments and Queensland Port Authorities have tracked a worrying decrease in abundance and area since 2007. This decline has almost certainly been the result of a series of severe tropical storms and associated floods exacerbating existing human induced stressors. A complex variety of marine and terrestrial management actions and plans have been implemented to protect seagrass and other habitats in the GBRWHA. For seagrasses, these actions are inadequate. They provide an impression of effective protection of seagrasses; reduce the sense of urgency needed to trigger action; and waste the valuable and limited supply of “conservation capital”. There is a management focus on ports, driven by public concerns about high profile development projects, which exaggerates the importance of these relatively concentrated impacts in comparison to the total range of threats and stressors. For effective management of seagrass at the scale of the GBRWHA, more emphasis needs to be placed on the connectivity between seagrass meadow health, watersheds, and all terrestrial urban and agricultural development associated with human populations. The cumulative impacts to seagrass from coastal and marine processes in the GBRWHA are not evenly distributed, with a mosaic of high and low vulnerability areas. This provides an opportunity to make choices for future coastal development plans that minimise stress on seagrass meadows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]