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In examining deaths resulting from gunshot wounds, it is important to describe the wound pathway created by the projectile. Forensic pathologists must identify all entrance and exit wounds and account for all projectiles. Occasionally, confusion arises as to whether a skin defect represents an entrance wound or not, an exit wound, or some other type of wound. Herein, we propose the descriptor "bullet track skin defect" as a formal description for a superficial skin defect created along the pathway of a projectile within the body. Specifically, we define the "bullet track skin defect" as a partial‐ or full‐thickness skin defect produced by a projectile traveling beneath the skin in a relatively tangential fashion as part of a wound pathway within the body. It is somewhat analogous to a traditional graze or superficial tangential wound, wherein the projectile traveling outside the body strikes the skin tangentially from above, without entering the body. However, the projectile is already traveling within the body with the bullet track skin defect, disrupting the skin tangentially from below rather than from above, without exiting the body. Although these defects are not a common presentation of gunshot wounds, they are certainly not rare. With this case series, we suggest that such defects may be referred to as "bullet track skin defects." Alternative language that can substitute for "bullet track skin defects" includes "bullet track skin wounds" or "bullet track cutaneous defects." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the era of unmanned war, with the increasing muzzle velocity requirement, the design of gun is significantly restricted by recoil, especially for guns installed on unmanned aerial vehicles. A recoilless gun with combustible cartridge was designed to eliminate recoil and increase projectile velocity, and the influence of main parameters on recoil was studied. First, a design of a recoilless gun with high projectile velocity is proposed based on combustible cartridge case. Next, a classical interior ballistic model is developed during the recoilless gun firing cycle, and the effect of main parameters of interior ballistics on the performance is investigated. Additionally, simple nonlinear fitting formulae are defined to highlight the variation of recoil momentum with the time of interior ballistic model. Finally, numerical simulation results are compared with the test results to validate the feasibility of the design. The experimental results demonstrate that the classical interior ballistic model can be used to accurately analyze the effect of the parameters on the projectile velocity and the recoil reduction efficiency. The projectile velocity of the recoilless gun could raised to 1200 m/s and the recoil momentum could be eliminated almostly. Therefore, the newly designed recoilless gun effectively eliminates the recoil momentum and significantly improves the projectile velocity. The findings should make an important contribution to the field of engineering applications of recoilless gun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The change of ambient temperature will cause the change of gunpowder burning rate, which will directly affect the ballistic performance of the projectile and cause the change of the overload of the projectile fuze system. In this study, the numerical simulation program of the interior trajectory of a large-caliber gun was established by MATLAB, and the variation rules of the corresponding trajectory parameters at different temperatures were obtained. ANSYS finite element software is used to analyze the force of the projectile fuze system under different ambient temperatures. The results show that under the same loading conditions, with the increase of ambient temperature, the maximum pressure in the gun bore and the muzzle velocity of the projectile increase significantly, and the stress and strain of the projectile fuze system in the bore increase gradually. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the theory, which reveals the influence of ambient temperature on the overload in the bore of the projectile fuze system to a certain extent, and provides theoretical support for the study of internal ballistics, charge design and gun use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers use a variety of target materials, and sometimes combinations of materials, in their archaeological experiments to examine thrust‐spear or projectile penetration, impact angle, durability, and other issues involving prehistoric hunting weaponry. This variety of target materials is beneficial to archaeological science in several ways, but it may also hinder the comparison of results because many of these target materials do not necessarily share similar physical properties. Here, we assess the penetration properties of four different target materials—store‐bought meat, clay, and two types of gelatin—via static penetration tests of a modern broadhead‐tipped arrow and a stone‐tipped projectile attached to an Instron Universal Materials Tester. Our analyses of load‐deflection curves, peak load, and work energy demonstrate how the four target materials are similar in some ways but different in others, which suggests that researchers may strategically employ one or several depending on the question asked or hypothesis tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A promising direction in barrel ballistics aimed at increasing the muzzle velocity of a projectile is the use of new propellants as an attached charge. This paper presents an experimental and theoretical method for determining the law of propellant combustion in a manometric experiment (in a closed volume). Within the framework of this method, a small number of experiments could be sufficient to determine a change in the law of combustion during the propellant burnout and depending on pressure. This method is demonstrated on the example of processing three experiments with model high-density propellant. The laws of combustion of high-density propellants, obtained in this study, can later be used to calculate the gas-dynamic parameters of a shot from a barrel system or a nozzle bomb (in a semi-closed volume) using these propellants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the frame of an experimental setting, the formation of round-shaped compounded glass fragments on the exit site after gunshots through a windshield was examined. For that purpose, a 9 × 19 mm pistol (HK P30) and two different cartridges containing (a) a full metal jacketed round-nosed projectile and (b) a deformation projectile were used. On the basis of 52 gunshots, the morphology, impact angles and terminal ballistics of occurring compounded glass fragments were examined. The results showed that the compounded glass fragments' morphology allowed for the differentiation of two used projectiles. Fragments were able to cause round-shaped defects in a single cotton layer (T-shirt) with subsequent penetration of up to 2.4 cm into ballistic gelatin (10%, 4 °C). As a function of the projectile type, the compounded glass fragments showed different reproducible impact angles that differed notably from the known conical pattern of expelled glass fragments after bullet penetration. These findings might help to explain the atypical morphology of gunshot wounds with laminated glass as an intermediate target and prevent possible misinterpretations when reconstructing the sequence of events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high recoil force of a high-power gun produces a strong impact on the carrier, which severely limits the application of the high-power gun mounted on vehicles. A gas-controlled side-jet gun was designed to reduce the recoil force, and the gas-solid transient flow in the bifurcated tube of the gun was studied. First, a one-dimensional two-phase interior ballistics model was established considering the gas-solid coupling between the propellant gas and the valve in the front gas tube. Then, the propagation of the rarefaction wave in the barrel was studied, and the flow field distribution in the bifurcated tube was obtained. Finally, the mechanism of recoil reduction was analyzed. Results show that the bifurcated two-phase flow model can be used to accurately analyze the effect of the gas-controlled side-jet gun's parameters on the projectile velocity and the recoil reduction efficiency. The projectile velocities of the gas-controlled side-jet gun and the traditional gun are 955.7 m/s and 960 m/s, respectively. The projectile velocity loss of the gas-controlled side-jet gun is less than 0.5 %. The recoil momentum of the traditional gun and the gas-controlled side-jet gun are 538.62 N·s and 336.68 N·s, respectively. The recoil momentum of the gas-controlled side-jet gun decreases by 37.49 %. Additionally, the single firing time of the gas-controlled side-jet gun (18.91 ms) is less than that of the traditional single-barrel gun (more than 60 ms). Therefore, the newly designed gas-controlled side-jet gun significantly reduces the recoil momentum without losing the projectile velocity and continuous firing mode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secondary blast injuries may result from high-velocity projectile fragments which ultimately increase medical costs, reduce active work time, and decrease quality of life. The role of skin penetration requires more investigation in energy absorption and surface mechanics for implementation in computational ballistic models. High-speed ballistic penetration studies have not considered penetrating and non-penetrating biomechanical properties of the skin, including radial wave displacement, resultant surface wave speed, or projectile material influence. A helium-pressurized launcher was used to accelerate 3/8″ (9.525 mm) diameter spherical projectiles toward seventeen whole porcine legs from seven pigs (39.53 ± 7.28 kg) at projectile velocities below and above V50. Projectiles included a mix of materials: stainless steel (n = 26), Si3N4 (n = 24), and acetal plastic (n = 24). Tracker video analysis software was used to determine projectile velocity at impact from the perpendicular view and motion of the tissue displacement wave from the in-line view. Average radial wave displacement and surface wave speed were calculated for each projectile material and categorized by penetrating or non-penetrating impacts. Two-sample t-tests determined that non-penetrating projectiles resulted in significantly faster surface wave speeds in porcine skin for stainless steel (p = 0.002), plastic (p = 0.004), and Si3N4 ball bearings (p = 0.014), while ANOVA determined significant differences in radial wave displacement and surface wave speed between projectile materials. Surface wave speed was used to quantify mechanical properties of the skin including elastic modulus, shear modulus, and bulk modulus during ballistic impact, which may be implemented to simulate accurate deformation behavior in computational impact models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weapons and past weapon systems are important research topics in Paleolithic archaeology. Its popularity stems from its relevance for understanding broader technological evolution, subsistence strategies, and human behavior. However, identifying what weapon system was used has proven to be a significant methodological challenge over the last few decades and in spite of what some titles of recent publications suggest, the question is still not resolved. In this paper, we present the results of a ballistic analysis of the four modes of propulsion that are traditionally considered for the Paleolithic period (bow, spear-thrower, hand-cast and thrusting spear). We advocate a stepwise approach to the problem given the multiple variables involved. The goal of this study is to add an essential building block to current understanding by exploring the notion of reactional impact stress (RIS) on the basis of the angle of incidence developed by the different projectiles. Our results show the importance of RIS for accurately understanding the projectile impact phenomenon and the existence of a reproducible and mutually distinct RIS between the four tested weapon systems. These results shed a new light on approaches that have been used previously to examine weapon systems archaeologically, such as those relying on the length of "diagnostic impact fractures". Our results allow the proposition of an alternative approach that appears to hold great potential, in particular for identifying the use of the bow. While a reliable method for recognizing past propulsion modes is not yet established, we conclude that the solution lies within the integration of several fields, more in particular use-wear analysis, fracture mechanics in brittle solids, and ballistics and we progressively move forward in identifying the key building blocks of such a method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ballistic resistance is affected by the projectile and armor material used. The character and behavior of the projectile affects its ability to damage and penetrate armor. The velocity, mass and shape of the projectile are the main factors in determining the ability of the projectile to penetrate armor in this case the target plate. Therefore, this study aims to determine and analyze the effect of projectile mass and shape on the velocity with which it penetrates the armor material using a compressed air gun. Armor material as a ballistic test target using carbon steel plate with a thickness of 0.8 mm; 1.2 mm and 1.8 mm. Projectiles of lead materials with different masses and shapes are fired from the air gun under controlled air pressure, set at 2000 Psi, 3000 Psi, and 4000 Psi to provide thrust in the barrel. The plat target is placed at a distance of 5 m from the air gun. Speed gauges are placed after the air gun and after the target plate to determine the projectile's rate before and after passing through the target plate. The test results concluded that the velocity of the projectile ejected from the compressed air gun was influenced by the magnitude of the pressure and the mass of the projectile. The mass of the projectile has a more dominant effect on the velocity of the projectile compared to the amount of pressure applied. Different projectile shapes with the same mass have no significant effect on the velocity. However, the heavier mass projectile outperforms the lighter mass projectile through the target plate. It is required the right combination of velocity and mass of the projectile to be able to penetrate the target plate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Launching large (> 1 g) well-characterized projectiles to velocities beyond 10 km s - 1 is of interest for a number of scientific fields, but is beyond the reach of current hypervelocity launcher technology. This paper reports the development of an explosively driven light-gas gun that has demonstrated the ability to launch 8-mm-diameter 0.36-g magnesium projectiles to 10.4 km s - 1 . The implosion-driven launcher (IDL) uses the linear implosion of a pressurized tube to shock-compress helium gas to a pressure of 5 GPa, which then expands to propel a projectile to hypervelocity. The launch cycle of the IDL is explored with the use of down-bore velocimetry experiments and a quasi-one-dimensional internal ballistics solver. A detailed overview of the design of the 8-mm launcher is presented, with an emphasis on the unique considerations which arise from the explosively driven propellant compression and the resulting extreme pressures and temperatures. The high average driving pressure results in a launcher that is compact, with a total length typically less than a meter. The possibility to scale the design to larger projectile sizes (25 mm diameter) is demonstrated. Finally, concepts for a modified launch cycle which may allow the IDL to reach significantly greater projectile velocities are explored conceptually and with preliminary experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In shooting crimes, ballistics tests are often recommended in order to reproduce the wound characteristics of the involved persons. For this purpose, several "simulants" can be used. However, despite the efforts in the research of "surrogates" in the field of forensic ballistic, the development of synthetic models needs still to be improved through a validation process based on specific real caseworks. This study has been triggered by the findings observed during the autopsy performed on two victims killed in the same shooting incident, with similar wounding characteristics; namely two retained head shots with ricochet against the interior wall of the skull; both projectiles have been recovered during the autopsies after migration in the brain parenchyma. The thickness of the different tissues and structures along the bullets trajectories as well as the incident angles between the bullets paths and the skull walls have been measured and reproduced during the assemblage of the synthetic head models. Two different types of models ("open shape" and "spherical") have been assembled using leather, polyurethane and gelatine to simulate respectively skin, bone and soft tissues. Six shots have been performed in total. The results of the models have been compared to the findings of post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) and the autopsy findings.Out of the six shots, two perforated the models and four were retained. When the projectile was retained, the use of both models allowed reproducing the wounds characteristics observed on both victims in terms of penetration and ricochet behaviour. However, the projectiles recovered from the models showed less deformation than the bullets collected during the autopsies. The "open shape" model allowed a better controlling on the shooting parameters than the "spherical" model. Finally, the difference in bullet deformation could be caused by the choice of the bone simulant, which might under-represent either the strength or the density of the human bone. In our opinion, it would be worth to develop a new, more representative material for ballistic which simulates the human bone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In view of the influence of projectile-barrel coupling on tank firing accuracy, a finite element model of projectile-barrel coupling based on vibration theory was established. By defining user subroutines to simulate the change of the physical field of interior ballistics, the load condition under which the propellant gas radial pressure acts on the inner wall of the barrel and varies with the motion of the projectile is realized. On this basis, the dynamic characteristics of projectile-barrel coupling considering the radial effect of propellant gas pressure were studied. The reference targets such as cradle, projectile and muzzle were selected for analysis, and compared with the situation without considering the radial effect of propellant gas pressure. The results show that the motion trend of the projectile in the bore and the response law of muzzle vibration change greatly when considering the radial effect of propellant gas pressure and these changes may seriously affect the law of projectile dispersion. The radial effect of propellant gas pressure can cause stronger dynamic response, which cannot be ignored in the simulation of artillery firing process. This work provides a practical reference for further study of tank firing accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a parameter important ballistic, the research about polygonal and grooved barrels' behavior has not been widely carried out. The pressures, velocities, stresses, deformations, and strains generated by the firing of 9 mm × 19 mm ammunition in weapons with polygonal barrels are analyzed numerically and experimentally, compared with those generated in pistols with grooved barrels. The Finite Element Method with equal boundary and loading conditions was used in both types of guns, specifying the actual materials of the projectile and the barrels. Subsequently, experimental tests were carried out on various weapons with 9 mm ammunitions of 115, 122, and 124 gr. The results show that the 9 mm bullet fired in a polygonal barrel undergoes a maximum deformation towards its exterior of 0.178 mm and interior of 0.158 mm, with stress up to 295.85 MPa. Compared with 0.025 mm maximum external deformation and 0.112 mm internal deformation of 9 mm projectiles fired in a grooved barrel, with stress up to 269.79 MPa. The deformation in the polygonal barrel is in a greater area, but the rifling impression left is less deep, making its identification more difficult. Although there are differences in the stresses and strains obtained, similar velocity and pressure parameters are achieved in the two types of barrels. This has application in the development and standardization of new kinds of barrels and weapons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A "plated bullet" has a thin layer of electroplated metal covering the lead core of the projectile. In certain situations, this thin layer of electroplated metal can fracture upon discharge of the firearm. When such fracturing occurs, vaporous lead can escape through the fracture lines of the spinning projectile, resulting in a spiral‐shaped deposition of dark residue surrounding a central bullet defect. The spiral‐shaped pattern is referred to as "comet‐tailing," or the "vortex effect." In this report, three homicide cases with associated comet‐tailing are presented. Police, death investigators, and forensic pathologists should be aware of this unique finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this article is to obtain equations of motion of the spin-stabilized projectile in the presence of non-constant wind. Introducing models allowing utilization of inhomogeneous wind is dictated by new possibilities created by the use of e.g. lidars in the Fire Control Systems (FCS). Constant feed of wind data can replace meteorological messages, increasing the FCS effectiveness. Article contains results of projectile flight simulations which indicate the positive effect that the derived explicit form of the model has when considering software development for modern Fire Control Systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with an adaptation of the standard interior ballistics model for the case of amphibious rifle shooting ammunition under water. The adapted mathematical model was validated and experimentally verified using the 5.56 mm underwater projectile shot from the 5.56 mm amphibious rifle. The dependence of the underwater interior ballistic processes on the powder mass was investigated. The results of theoretical mathematic model solution correspond very well with experiment. The described mathematical model and the dependence of the underwater interior ballistic processes on the powder mass can be a reference for designers in the design process of the underwater ammunition or underwater rifle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to study the two-dimensional rheological behavior of a long-rod projectile penetrating into steel target, a two-dimensional elbow-streamline penetration model was developed based on long-rod projectile hydrodynamic penetration model, mass conservation during penetration and elbow model. The impact velocity, reference point angle and reference point radius are considered in the proposed model. The material flow around the nose of tungsten long-rod projectile penetrating into a steel target was analyzed based on the proposed model and compared with the test results. The results show that the material flow around the tungsten long-rod projectile nose is non-uniformly distributed, and the flow velocity on the outer side is less than that on the inner side. The pressure on the long-rod projectile nose material is distributed gradiently. The proposed model is used to describe the material flow of long-rod projectile nose during penetration, and explain the process of transition from fluid to solid in the projectile nose at the final stage of penetration. It reveals the relation between the change of ballistics channel and the penetration state transition of projectile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The appearance of new projectile propulsion modes is viewed as an important element for understanding human behaviour during the Palaeolithic. Because the organic components of hunting weapons (the bow, spear‐thrower and arrow, and spear shaft) are only rarely preserved archaeologically, some effort has been invested in experiments to explore how the projecting modes could be identified through the analysis of stone points. The kinetic energy developed by each mode of propulsion has been considered a key variable in these experiments. However, the data used in these studies generally come from a few ballistic studies, with varied results. We present the results of a systematic study conducted with a ballistic pendulum and combined with a classic ballistic analysis. We quantified and compared the kinetic energy developed by the four standard modes of propulsion known for the Palaeolithic. The kinetic energy values that we attained, especially those measured for thrusting spears, clearly differ from what has been assumed up to now, and thus challenge current models on the evolution of hunting technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a method for obtaining time dependent back face deformation (BFD) data for body armor during ballistic impact using a clear ballistics gelatin backing and high-speed cameras to capture the deformation profile. Using this method, baseline fabric characterization data was obtained for samples comprised of varying layers of 467 g/m2 Kevlar K29 fabric impacted with 8.24 g steel ball projectile and backed with NATO standard 20% clear ballistics gelatin. For these tests, deformation depths were seen to increase with increasing impact energy and decreasing total areal density. A limited study of the various test parameters was performed by testing one additional fabric, projectile, and ballistics gelatin. From these comparisons, it was observed that 122 g/m2 Kevlar KM2+ fabric performs better per weight than 467 g/m2 Kevlar K29 fabric in terms of BFD, 9 mm FMJ projectiles produce deeper BFDs than 12.7 mm steel ball projectiles, and backing a sample with FBI standard 10% ballistics gel increases the BFD considerably over NATO standard 20% ballistics gel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Firing accuracy is a critical quantity of interest in the performance analysis of electromagnetic railgun (EMRG) exterior ballistics. Since the simulation technique is always used to simulate the complex physical system at a low cost, it is employed to evaluate the firing accuracy of railgun projectile with uncertainty in this paper. An exterior ballistics simulation model of the railgun, including 3-DOF flight mechanical model, relative kinematic model, and guidance law model, is developed to simulate the ballistics behavior in the missile target intercept mission. The firing accuracy is studied in this paper to compare the capability of EMRG with different ranges and muzzle velocities. In order to explore the firing accuracy of the guided projectile, the guidance precision analysis and ballistics uncertainty quantification are studied. In the guidance precision analysis, the shot range and efficiency are used to make a comparison. In addition, the sensitivity analysis and firing accuracy analysis are also performed in terms of uncertainty quantification. The simulation results illustrate that the simulation of the guided projectile can give some practical guide to the projectile design of EMRG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fiber-optic confocal sensor for noncontact ballistic measurements is described. Determination of motion at velocities of 1.7 km/s with an uncertainty as small as ±0.3% is demonstrated for both a projectile and a free-surface target. The fibers detect the passage of the object at their conjugate image points created by low F/# optics. This results in an output signal comprising a train of sharp pulses each precisely identifying when the ballistic object traverses an image point. Since the ballistic object does not contact the sensor at the time of imaging, the measurements do not perturb the motion, enabling multi-fragment measurement, as well as repetitive measurements of the same object point. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Two field tests on concrete targets subjected to a projectile penetration followed by charge explosion were conducted. • The failure mode and stress waves in concrete were experimentally obtained. • Two-step numerical models based on the Kong-Fang concrete material model and SPG method were developed and validated. • The influences of projectile penetration on destructive effects caused by following charge explosion were clarified. The earth penetration weapons (EPWs) usually penetrate into protective structures firstly, and then detonate the charge to induce high-intensity blast stress waves to cause further damage. Existing investigations on the destructive effect caused by the following charge explosion after penetration of EPWs are very limited. To clarify the combined destructive effect in concrete material caused by an EPW, an experimental and numerical investigation on failure mode and stress wave propagation in concrete target subjected to a projectile penetration followed by charge explosion was conducted in the present study. Firstly, two field tests on high strength fiber-reinforced concrete targets subjected to a projectile penetration followed by charge explosion were conducted, in which the failure and blast waves in concrete targets were comprehensively obtained. Then two-step numerical models based on the Kong-Fang concrete material model and SPG method were developed and validated against the experimental data. Finally, based on the validated numerical models, the influences of projectile penetration on the destructive effect caused by following charge explosion were analyzed. The numerical results demonstrated that the damage caused by projectile penetration has significant influences on the final failure mode and stress wave propagation in concrete targets. The research results can provide an important reference for the design of protective structure against EPWs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency is a critical quantity of interest in the performance of electromagnetic railgun (EMRG). To improve the energy efficiency of EMRG with the presence of uncertainty, a hybrid robust optimization method is proposed. EMRG simulation model is developed to simulate the behavior of exterior ballistics and the corresponding robust optimization issue is formulated. With the help of the impact factor analysis, several significant factors of energy efficiency are selected as the design variables while the insignificant ones are not taken into account. In the robust optimization, the polynomial chaos expansion approach coupled with Latin hypercube design is proposed to propagate the uncertainty for alleviating the computational burden of fitness function (energy efficiency) evaluation. Then, the genetic algorithm is employed to solve the EMRG energy efficiency optimization problem with the constraint of mean miss distance. The optimization results illustrate that the hybrid robust optimization method is an efficient approach to improve the energy efficiency, which can be applied in the practical application of EMRG projectile design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From time to time, severe or fatal injuries caused by small caliber air rifle projectiles are seen. In forensic sciences, the theoretical wounding potential of these weapons and projectiles is widely known. Usually, shots against the skull were reported and, in these cases, penetrating the eyes or thin bone layers of the temporal region. Amongst a huge number of different projectiles available for air guns, sub-caliber 4.4-mm (.173) caliber steel ball projectiles were used in an unusual suicide case. This case led to fundamental questions concerning wound ballistics. An 82-year-old man shot once against his right temporal region and twice into his mouth with a 4.5-mm (.177) caliber air rifle. Because of the exceptionally deep penetration of the base of the skull and the use of spherical-shaped sub-caliber air rifle projectiles, terminal ballistic features were analyzed and compared to results published in forensic literature. Test shots using the same weapon and similar projectiles were fired into ballistic gelatin to measure and calculate basic wound ballistic variables of cal. 4.4-mm (.173) steel balls. In comparison, further test shots with cal. 4.5-mm (.177) steel balls BB (ball bearing), flat-headed and pointed air rifle pellets ("diabolos") were carried out. The theoretical penetration depth in solid bone was calculated with 36.4 mm, and test shots in gelatin from hard contact produced an on-average wound track of 120 mm underlining the potential wounding effect. Furthermore, spherical projectiles could roll back and forth within the barrel, and an air cushion between projectile and breechblock can reduce muzzle velocity by more than half, explaining the retained missile in the temporal region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates abilities of university students in making assumptions in a ballistics model. The students were asked to make reasonable assumptions in a ballistics model often encountered in mechanics. The objects ranged from stones thrown by catapults in ancient times to launching projectiles and missiles from recent history. Students' responses to the questionnaire regarding their assumptions are presented and analysed in the article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is focused on the development of the underwater ballistic model of a supercavitating projectile fired from an underwater firearm. The supercavitating flows and their influences on the ballistic characteristics of the projectile are studied. The presented mathematical model is validated and experimentally verified for the supercavitating projectile of 5.7 mm in diameter fired from a smooth bore underwater rifle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability of a metallic surface layer to protect CFRP cross-ply plates against perforation is explored. Aluminium alloy plates (either AA1050A or AA6082-T6) were placed in front of a CFRP layer, and the bilayer was subjected to either quasi-static indentation or to ballistic impact by a spherical projectile, with rigid back support or an edge-clamped boundary condition. The observed perforation mechanism of the CFRP layer is neither influenced by the presence of the metallic layer nor by the choice of loading rate (i.e. quasi-static versus ballistic). In the back-supported condition, the CFRP layers fail by an indirect tension mode that consists of tensile failure of plies in the material directly beneath the indenter or projectile. Alternatively, in the edge-clamped condition, the CFRP layers fail by a shear plugging mechanism. Although the presence of metallic layers does not suppress the shear plugging of the underlying CFRP layer, the loaded area in the CFRP layer increases by the addition of the protective metallic layer, thereby increasing the perforation resistance of the CFRP layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypervelocity impact of a projectile on a thin plate generates a debris clouds. Largest chunk (mass) of the projectile material (called primary fragment) in the cloud poses significant ballistic threat to subsequent structure. Primary fragment characteristics (mass, velocity and exit angle) are used in assessing subsequent structure damage potential. Non-dimensional empirical equations are proposed in this paper for estimation of these characteristics. A set of simulations has been carried out using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) technique of Autodyn. Two stage light gas gun test data has been compared for validation of simulation. Simulation results for spherical projectile made of stainless steel impacting mild steel plate with impact velocity of 2–4 km/s and obliquity of 0°–60° has been analysed. Constants and radicals of the proposed equations are determined by multi variable regression of the simulation data. Comparison of the simulation data with the proposed equations shows a very good fit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we present a numerical model to simulate the ballistic impact of a rigid right circular cylinder (RCC) projectile into a woven fabric target. The numerical solution of transverse ballistic impact on a laminar biaxial fabric is obtained using a forward finite-difference method. The ballistic impact analysis for different materials of targets made of aramid and polyethylene fibers are simulated to investigate the effect of fabric material on the ballistic resistance. Numerical simulations are performed to reveal the influences of crimp factor and fabric material on the ballistic performance of woven fabrics. Various cases have been presented showing the variations of yarn strains, yarn velocities, and yarn displacements over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a numerical study of perforation of the aluminiummulti-layered targets impacted by steel projectiles in the shape of a ball, nut and nail. For the construction of the protective panels arc-, rectangular-, V- and U-shaped sheets of metal were considered. During the tests the panel thickness was constant at 160 mm. The panels were composed of 1.5-mm-thick aluminium sheets, and the initial speed of debris was 500 m/s. A comprehensive numerical study indicated the shape of the layer that had superior ballistic resistance and the best strength-to-weight ratio. Computational analyses were also used to investigate the influence of thermal softening and strain rate hardening in the Johnson–Cook constitutive model on the ballistic performance of layered targets. The number of layers required to stop the penetrating objects was compared for the rigid and deformable projectiles. Based on the comparative studies, some guidelines for engineering tasks involving exploration of number of possible technical solutions were proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ballistic response against small projectiles of a hybrid laminate made up of a front layer of a needle-punched nonwoven fabric and several layers of a woven fabric was analyzed from the experimental and numerical viewpoint. The experimental results showed that the hybrid shield outperformed the woven and nonwoven counterparts in terms of the ballistic limit and of the energy dissipated, which was larger than the sum of the energies dissipated individually by the woven and nonwoven fabrics. Moreover, the energy absorption of the hybrid shield was maintained above the ballistic limit, leading to a ballistic performance similar to the one reported in fiber-reinforced composites. In fact, the hybrid polyethylene shield presented better impact performance than conventional laminates based on aramid woven fabrics with similar areal weight. The mechanisms responsible for the ballistic performance of the hybrid shield were ascertained by means of numerical simulations. The deformation and failure mechanisms obtained in the numerical simulations were in agreement with the experimental results and showed the complex interaction between the projectile, the nonwoven and the woven fabrics during impact which led to an enhanced energy absorption capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ignition performances of percussion primers for small calibre ammunition are determined using a new experimental setup, with pressure transducers and special designed combustion chambers. The method enables a comparison of new designed primers with consecrated models by relative ignition capacity. Results show that ballistic performances of primers are in direct relationship with the gradient pressure vs. rise time and also with the maximum pressure developed inside the cartridge chamber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanisms of projectile defeat and ballistic resistance of thin targets impacted by tip-deformable conical projectiles have been discussed in the context of the influence of apex angle of the projectile. Transition in target local failure modes occurred as the projectile apex angle was altered. The effect on projectile deformation and ballistic properties has also been discussed. A brief discussion on projectile deformation mechanism and projectile defeat near ballistic limit velocities with supporting experimental evidence is included. Numerical simulation using ABAQUS/Explicit has been able to effectively predict the projectile deformation and associated target behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research deals with the experimental and numerical investigation of ballistic protection provided by a combination of perforated and base armour plates. A 7.62 mm armour piercing projectile was used during the experimentation to determine the ballistic response of an aluminum base armour plate and a combination of steel perforated and aluminum base armour plate. The armour piercing projectiles were able to penetrate the base armour plate while the combination of perforated and base armour plates was able to stop the penetration of the armour piercing projectile. A finite element method based numerical model was developed to investigate the defeating phenomenon of perforated and base armour plate combination. The brittle fracture caused by the bending of the projectile core due to the asymmetric impact was predicted and the resulting fragments of the projectile were unable to penetrate the base armour plate. Craters were formed on the surface of the base armour plate from the impact of the projectile fragments. The numerical model was able to predict the hole growth and penetration of projectile when only the base armour plate was impacted by the projectile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terminal ballistic performance of high-strength projectiles penetrating into metallic targets is mostly concerned by both weapon and armor designers. Most existing works are concentrated on the rigid-eroding penetration regime, and limited studies have addressed the rigid-deforming-eroding penetration regime. In this paper, nineteen shots of hemispherical nosed D6A steel projectiles penetration test on 5A06-H112 aluminum targets is conducted with a wide range of velocities (696 m/s–1870 m/s). The non-monotonic dependence of depth of penetration (DOP) on the impact velocity is observed, which successively corresponds to the three penetration stages, i.e., rigid projectile penetration, deforming projectile penetration without eroding and eroding projectile penetration. Then, for the non-monotonic rigid-deforming-eroding projectile penetration regime, the applicability of the existing six classical theoretical models for both rigid and eroding projectile penetrations is evaluated. Furthermore, the transition velocities (the upper limit of rigid penetration and the lower limit of eroding penetration) are discussed and an empirical judgement criterion for the occurrence of non-monotonic dependence is proposed. Finally, by conducting the dynamic compression test, quasi-static tension test under varying temperature, etc., the Johnson-Cook model parameters for the present target and projectile are calibrated and validated by numerically simulating the present test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Damage produced by high-speed projectiles on organic tissue will depend on the physical properties of the tissues. Conditioning organic tissue samples to human core body temperature (37°C) prior to conducting ballistic experiments enables their behavior to closely mimic that of living tissues. To minimize autolytic changes after death, the tissues are refrigerated soon after their removal from the body and re-heated to 37°C prior to testing. This research investigates whether heating 50-mm-cube samples of porcine liver, kidney, and heart to 37°C for varying durations (maximum 7 h) can affect the penetration response of a high-speed, steel sphere projectile. Longer conditioning times for heart and liver resulted in a slight loss of velocity/energy of the projectile, but the reverse effect occurred for the kidney. Possible reasons for these trends include autolytic changes causing softening (heart and liver) and dehydration causing an increase in density (kidney). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the ballistic impact response of square clamped fiber–metal laminates and monolithic plates consisting of different aluminum alloys is investigated using the ANSYS LS-DYNA explicit nonlinear analysis software. The panels are subjected to central normal high velocity ballistic impact by a cylindrical projectile. The implemented finite element models have been validated by comparison with published experimental data concerning GLARE 5 and monolithic 2024-T3 aluminum plates. Using the validated models, the influence of the mechanical properties of the constituent aluminum alloy on the ballistic resistance of the fiber–metal laminates and the monolithic plates is studied. Apart from 2024-T3, the aluminum alloys 2024-T351, 2024-O, 6061-T6, 7039 and 7075-T6 are considered. It is found that the ballistic limits of the panels can be substantially affected by the constituent aluminum alloy. The 7075-T6 aluminum alloy offers the highest ballistic resistance whereas 2024-O aluminum alloy offers the lowest ballistic resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geometrically nonlinear vibrations of functionally graded shallow shells of complex planform are studied. The paper deals with a power-law distribution of the volume fraction of ceramics and metal through the thickness. The analysis is performed with the use of the R-functions theory and variational Ritz method. Moreover, the Bubnov-Galerkin and the Runge-Kutta methods are employed. A novel approach of discretization of the equation of motion with respect to time is proposed. According to the developed approach, the eigenfunctions of the linear vibration problem and some auxiliary functions are appropriately matched to fit unknown functions of the input nonlinear problem. Application of the R-functions theory on every step has allowed the extension of the proposed approach to study shallow shells with an arbitrary shape and different kinds of boundary conditions. Numerical realization of the proposed method is performed only for one-mode approximation with respect to time. Simultaneously, the developed method is validated by investigating test problems for shallow shells with rectangular and elliptical planforms, and then applied to new kinds of dynamic problems for shallow shells having complex planforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study conducted high-velocity penetration experiments using conventional ogive-nose, double-ogive-nose, and grooved-tapered projectiles of approximately 2.5 kg and initial velocities between 1000 and 1360 m/s to penetrate or perforate concrete targets with unconfined compressive strengths of nominally 40MPa. The penetration performance data of these three types of projectiles with two different types of materials (i.e., AerMet100 and DT300) were obtained. The crater depth model considering both the projectile mass and the initial velocity was proposed based on the test results and a theoretical analysis. The penetration ability and the trajectory stability of these three projectile types were compared and analyzed accordingly. The results showed that, under these experimental conditions, the effects of these two different kinds of projectile materials on the penetration depth and mass erosion rate of projectile were not obvious. The existing models could not reflect the crater depths for projectiles of greater weights or higher velocities, whereas the new model established in this study was reliable. The double-ogive-nose has a certain effect of drag reduction. Thus, the double-ogive-nose projectile has a higher penetration ability than the conventional ogive-nose projectile. Meanwhile, the grooved-tapered projectile has a better trajectory stability, because the convex parts of tapered shank generated the restoring moment to stabilize the trajectory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Molecular dynamics simulations of the ballistic Taylor test are used to explore correlation between the largest fragment mass and the impact energy of a projectile as well as a set of selected state variables. Flat-ended, monocrystalline, nanoscale bars collide with a rigid wall with striking velocities ranging from 0.27 km/s to 60 km/s. The investigation emphasis is on two border regions of the emerging nonlinear phenomenological model identified with two transitions: the damage-fragmentation transition and the shattering transition. In between these two nonlinear regions, the maximum fragment mass is largely inversely proportional to the impact energy, and the maximum values of the pressure, temperature, and the square of the effective strain. A reverse-sigmoid phenomenological model is proposed to capture the unifying features of this nonlinear and saturable dependence. A crystallographic orientation dependence of the damage-fragmentation transition parameters is investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electromagnetic railgun (EMRG) is a promising candidate weapon system for the future surface-fire support mission characterized by quick response, hypersonic velocity, and high damage efficiency. Since the huge power consumption during launching, priority should be given to the precise strike. Firing accuracy of EMRG, which refers to the closeness degree of the projectiles’ impact points to the target, is an important performance metric in the EMRG exterior ballistic performance assessment. To provide a systematic solution for the measure of firing accuracy, the assessment factors are formulated in detail. Then, a general framework, including trajectory simulation, data preprocessing, parameters estimation, and hit probability calculation, is proposed to evaluate EMRG firing accuracy. Considering the trajectory simulation experiments may be time consuming, a new multicriteria optimal Latin hypercube design method is presented to maintain the balance between experiment time and sampling performance. Finally, firing accuracy assessment of 16-kg projectiles is performed using the designed framework and proposed experimental design method. The result reveals that the circular error probability is about 5 km under current defined scenarios, which means the initial disturbances may have great impact on the firing accuracy of projectiles without guidance and control units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mathematical-physical model of the hypersonic anti-tank kinetic subcalibre projectile for 120 mm munition was built. Computer simulations of the projectile flight were performed for any angle of shooting, from 0° to 90°. Trajectories of projectile flights were determined considering all angles of shooting. Theoretical calculations were verified by experimental measurement of the projectile velocity in time while shooting on a test range. Some conclusions with regard to safety during hypersonic projectile shooting on the test range were formulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of an investigation of the ballistic limits and failure modes of AA2024-T351 sheets impacted by cubical projectiles. The effect of cube orientation on the ballistic limit and failure modes was considered in detail. Three impact configurations were investigated. Configuration one, two and three considered face, edge or corner impacts correspondingly. The experimental results were complemented with finite element analysis results in order to explain the observations. The lowest ballistic limit (202 m/s) was observed when the cube edge impacted on the target. In the cube face impacts, the ballistic limit was higher (223 m/s), and the highest ballistic limit (254 m/s) was observed for the corner impact. Although the face impact did not have the lowest ballistic limit, this impact configuration resulted in the least amount of projectile energy loss for impacts above the ballistic limit. With the aid of finite element modelling, it was possible to develop a better understanding of the test results and explain that the observed differences in impact response were not just due to a difference in projectile frontal area, but also due to the combination of the localised deformation near the projectile impact point and the resulting global (dishing) deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]