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The federal government is the lender for the current student loan system, but replacing it with a system that harnesses the advantages of a marketplace of private lending would save $212 billion over the next 10 years while also benefiting students by helping them avoid risky educational choices. Due to ongoing court cases and upcoming regulatory changes, however, the savings from transitioning away from government lending could disappear. This paper explains why private lending would be superior to the current system, how federal student lending can be shut down, and when this opportunity should be seized.

While current higher education literature stresses the importance of equity, diversity, and inclusivity, these imperatives have been mainly absent from conversations related to boards of higher education. In this paper, the authors present a historical overview of the demographic landscape of trustee boards from inception to the present. Using critical literacy as a methodology, the authors problematize the lack of discourses regarding Board's diversity. The authors juxtapose the longstanding homogeneity of boards with the increasing heterogeneity of higher education students and argue that systemic forms of racism have denied the opportunity to diversify those in charge of making decisions in higher education. Additionally, using the case of California, the authors problematize how diversity gaps in board composition manifest even within one of the most diverse and liberal states in the country. Ultimately, the authors make a case for diversifying the board of trustees as an instrumental step to align with the national push for enhanced diversity and equity in higher education.

The significant decrease in student achievement levels following the pandemic has become a pressing national problem, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts showed some of the sharpest academic achievement declines in the country. To assist schools in recovering from the pandemic, the federal government allocated three waves of funding through its Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) package. Massachusetts received over $2.9 billion in ESSER funding that districts have largely allocated for academic remediation programs, such as high-dosage tutoring, summer learning programs, and after-school remedial instruction. This paper reviews these short-term learning loss recovery interventions. Evidence from this review indicates that while these popular learning loss interventions are underpinned by a strong research base, they are difficult to extend to all students and may be unsustainable after one-time federal relief funding is exhausted. To consider long-run policy responses, this paper examines differentiated teacher compensation, permanently extended instructional time, family engagement programs, and college, career, and technical education initiatives as potential strategies for sustaining student success in Massachusetts. Research suggests that if well-designed, these approaches hold promise for not only supporting learning loss recovery efforts but also creating a foundation for continued academic growth over the long run.

The COVID-19 pandemic forced widespread school closures and a shift to remote learning. A growing body of research has examined the effects of remote learning on student outcomes. But the accuracy of the school modality measures used in these studies is questionable. The most common measures--based on self-reports or district website information--are often inconsistent and lack nationwide coverage. Some studies have used cell phone mobility data to identify school modalities, but there is no consensus yet on how to translate device pings into modality measures. This paper contributes to the literature on modality measurement by examining the relationship between mobile device signals and school modality prior to the pandemic and applies those findings to the pandemic period in Michigan and Washington. We compare our results to state-provided closure data and other nationwide sources, including the Return to Learn Tracker and the COVID-19 School Data Hub. Our findings indicate that cell phone mobility data can accurately predict school modality under normal conditions, but the accuracy drops during the pandemic. These results have implications for future research on educational and health outcomes during both pandemic and non-pandemic-related school closures.

This paper examines the long-term impact of the 1993 Massachusetts Education Reform Act (MERA) and the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) on postsecondary education outcomes, with a focus on historically underserved students. MERA aimed to improve educational standards and close achievement gaps through the introduction of MCAS, a statewide assessment system, and the high school Competency Determination (CD) requirement for graduation. More than two decades later, questions remain about how these reforms have influenced students' readiness for and success in postsecondary education. This analysis addresses three key areas: (1) Changes in 10th-grade MCAS performance over time; (2) Student participation and success in key college readiness benchmarks such as advanced coursework, SAT, and high school graduation; and (3) Postsecondary enrollment and degree completion rates.

Education resources matter when they are allocated and used effectively. Yet, the upstream decisions school boards make about district budgets and resource allocation are understudied. In this descriptive study, we analyze data from 400 publicly available video recordings of financial deliberations in school board budget meetings between spring 2022 and spring 2023. Half of the video recordings are from school boards that received education finance training from the Edunomics Lab at Georgetown University. We find school boards discussed student outcomes in only 15-25% of board meetings focused on financial deliberations. Only about 11% of the variation in financial deliberations can be explained by district characteristics, student achievement, and community characteristics. We find no differences in the discussion of student outcomes for districts with and without the Edunomics training. However, descriptive evidence suggests a positive relationship between the Edunomics training and some summary measures of financial deliberations: the overall level of engagement in budgetary discussions; the likelihood per-unit cost and internal barriers (such as decision-making structure) were mentioned; and the likelihood that the budget was linked to outcomes. These findings underscore the variation in school board deliberations and suggest the potential value of training school board members to influence those deliberations.

In 2008, America's largest government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs)--the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac)--recorded combined net losses of $109 billion. This figure surpassed the GSEs' cumulative net income over the prior 40 years, and the federal government placed both GSEs in conservatorship on September 6, 2008. Although Congress clearly intended such conservatorships to be temporary, unlike the receivership process that it designed for closing an insolvent GSE, both GSEs remain insolvent and in conservatorship. Throughout the 16-year conservatorship, many people have proposed plans to rework the Preferred Stock Purchase Agreements (PSPAs) that specify the terms of the support the US Treasury provided to the GSEs. Although renegotiating the PSPAs may be necessary to end the GSEs' conservatorships, any new deal should be structured to facilitate receivership and liquidation, accelerating an end to America's failed GSE experiment. The federal government's dominance in the housing finance market--both before and throughout the GSE conservatorships--has stifled private competition and worsened Americans' financial condition, but it has done virtually nothing to increase the homeownership rate. It is time to wind down the affairs of the GSEs through receivership, a process that the federal government should have undertaken in 2008.

Since the 1990s, there has been a growing demand for evidence-based education policy and practice. This demand stems from concerns that education systems are not meeting the needs of a changing world and that education research lacks rigor. While this demand aims to improve the quality of education, silos between different actors often hinder how evidence informs policymaking. We encourage researchers to use a collaborative research approach by involving multiple education actors in the research process to close the gaps between research, policy, and practice. This paper is the third in a series of three working papers meant to serve as references and conversation starters for policymakers and researchers as they navigate pedagogical reform for education system transformation in their local contexts. Together, the three working papers emphasize the need for more locally driven collaborative research on how the interaction of culture, local education ecosystems, and learning theories--collectively called Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets--influences teachers' pedagogical choices in the classroom. Primarily intended for education researchers, Working Paper III advocates the use of collaborative research approaches to actively include multiple education actors in the research process, foster complementary relationships between actors with different expertise, and make research findings more relevant and responsive to the local education ecosystem. The paper has three parts that discuss the need for flexible research approaches to inform policy given the complexities of education decision-making, the importance of communication and dissemination, and how collaborative research can bridge the gaps between research, policy, and practice. The paper concludes by looking at the ongoing work of the SPARKS project at the Center for Universal Education and how collaborative research can contribute to education systems transformation.

Although global access to schooling has increased over the last several decades, Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which champions inclusive, equitable, quality education, is far from being achieved. Experts predict that if the global community continues to operate education systems in the same way, by 2030, only one in six countries will reach the universal secondary school completion targets, and approximately 300 million students in school will continue to lack basic numeracy and literacy skills. The 2022 United Nations Transforming Education Summit emphasized the urgent need for a complete overhaul of education systems to meet SDG 4 targets. One significant outcome of the summit was a call to improve student learning by transforming teacher classroom practice. This paper is the first in a series of three working papers meant to serve as references and conversation starters for policymakers and researchers as they navigate pedagogical reform for education system transformation in their local contexts. This paper explores various definitions of pedagogies, the lack of consensus on what pedagogy means in practice, and the effects of Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets on pedagogical approaches.

In many low- and medium-income countries (LMICs), student-centered pedagogies are often implicitly or explicitly at the heart of innovative pedagogical reforms. In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on student-centered pedagogies, which aim to shift power dynamics, increase interaction, and prioritize the needs of learners. Many international agencies, governments, and education experts view these pedagogies as "best practices" or a pedagogical "silver bullet" to improve classroom practice. This paper is the second in a series of three working papers meant to serve as references and conversation starters for policymakers and researchers as they navigate pedagogical reform for education system transformation in their local contexts. Together, the three working papers emphasize the need for more locally driven collaborative research on how the interaction of culture, local education ecosystems, and learning theories--collectively called Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets--influences teachers' pedagogical choices in the classroom. This paper details why the authors recommend policymakers examine Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets in their local context to inform pedagogical reforms. The authors discuss the reasons why generalized "best practices"--namely "student-centered pedagogies" as currently implemented--do not often successfully transfer to new cultures, countries, and contexts and argue that many pedagogical reforms do not adequately consider the Invisible Pedagogical Mindsets embedded in each local context.

This paper reviews overall student performance as well as the performance of student subgroups on the assessment system developed in response to the Massachusetts Education Reform Act of 1993 (MERA), the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS). Comparing students in Massachusetts to students in the rest of the United States or against students in other countries can not only confirm the rigor of the MCAS, but the comparison can also provide meaning to MCAS scores and ensure that they accurately measure student performance. There are two primary international exams given at regular intervals: (1) the Trends in International Math and Science Study (TIMSS); and (2) the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). The strong performance on the international exams across several years and subjects, especially on TIMSS, confirmed the quality of Massachusetts K-12 schools.

The COVID-19 pandemic devastated student achievement, with declines rivaling those after Hurricane Katrina. These losses widened achievement gaps between historically marginalized students and their peers. Three years later, achievement remains behind pre-pandemic levels for many students. This paper examines 2022-23 academic recovery efforts across eight districts, including tutoring, small group instruction, after-school, extended year, double-dose, digital learning, and expert teacher interventions. Across 22 math and reading interventions, most were delivered to fewer students and for less time than planned. We find positive effects for one tutoring program on math scores and two tutoring programs on reading scores, ranging from 0.22 to 0.33 SD. Each of these programs served a very small share of the district's students and was unlikely to play a major role in district-wide academic recovery. Finally, we find that having an "expert" teacher with high evaluation scores as opposed to a non-expert teacher significantly improves student achievement by 0.06 SD in math and 0.11 SD in reading. While highlighting the promise of intensive academic interventions, our findings underscore the challenges districts face in scaling such interventions to match their recovery needs. The field needs better evidence regarding successful implementation of large-scale interventions.

Asian Americans as a group are overrepresented among STEM college graduates and have the highest average college enrollment rate of any racial or ethnic category. Thus, Asian Americans are typically excluded from educational interventions directed at improving STEM education for Students of Color because they are not considered to be underrepresented minorities. However, statistics obscure the individual needs of the more than 20 ethnic subgroups that fall under the umbrella term Asian Americans. Using a participatory action research approach, this paper documents the institutional and sociocultural factors that push out HMoob (or Hmong) American college students from STEM programs at one large, predominantly White university; and the coordinate processes of gatekeeping and transactional advising that either redirect those students toward non-STEM programs or force them out of the university completely.

Over a 6-year period, a sociolinguistic and sociocultural project was undertaken by Alaska Native expert educators and linguists (aka the Yup'ik Expert Group) from the Yup'ik community in the Lower Kuskokwim School District, Central Alaska. The native experts developed their own culturally sustainable, valid, and reliable Kindergarten through Grade 6 Alaska Native language (Yugtun) assessment. Yup'ik experts named their assessment the Yugtun Piciryaranek Qaneryaranek-llu Cuqyun (aka Yup'ik Culture and Language Measurement). This paper focuses on a foundational component of the assessment, the Yup'ik Cultural Awareness subtest, which has two components, Nonverbal Communication and Yup'ik Worldview.

This paper examines the impact, characteristics, and entrepreneurial proclivities of foreign-born college graduates in the United States. A significant body of research has found that immigrants are more likely to start businesses than those born in the U.S., and the propensity of international students to concentrate in STEM fields indicates enormous potential for economic contributions and innovation. Yet the static nature of the immigration system, with visa pathways and restrictions that discourage business creation, hamper the nation's ability to take full advantage of the benefits immigrants can provide. In fact, this study finds that the U.S. immigration system likely delays foreign-born graduates from creating incorporated firms by as many as five years. The authors estimate that the creation of 150,000 incorporated firms and 580,000 jobs were delayed between 2013 and 2021. Without reform, the U.S. will continue to depress high-value firm creation by international students and cease to be the primary destination of global talent.

In this essay, we explore the consequences of the University of California's policies to address racial disparities and its support for social justice activism as influences on its commitment to academic freedom and other intellectual values. This is a story of the interaction between two essential public university missions -- one civic, the other intellectual -- and the slow effacement of one by the other. The University's expressed commitments to academic freedom and the culture of rationalism have not been abandoned, but they are too often considered secondary or when confronted by new administrative initiatives and social movement activism related to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). The experimental use of mandatory DEI statements on a number of the ten UC campuses, within willing academic departments, as initial screening mechanisms in faculty hiring is the most dramatic of the new administrative policies that have been put into place to advance faculty diversity. This policy can be considered the most problematic of a series of efforts that the UC campuses and the UC Office of the President have taken for more than a decade to prioritize representation in academic appointments. Our intent is to encourage a discussion of these policies within UC in light of the University's fundamental commitments to open intellectual inquiry, the discovery and dissemination of a wide range of new knowledge, and a culture of rationalism.

The effect of remote learning on student performance has been a frequent topic of research and discussion in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, yet little is known about the impact of remote instruction on the performance of teachers. This study documents how relative effectiveness of teachers changed when moving from in-person to remote instruction and analyzes the characteristics of teachers associated with greater relative effectiveness during remote instruction. Using matched student/teacher-level data from three large metro-Atlanta school districts, we estimate teacher value-added models to measure the association between teacher characteristics and a teacher's relative contribution to test score growth before and during the period of virtual instruction in the 2020-21 school year. We find evidence of increased variation in overall teacher effectiveness during remote instruction. Results are driven by veteran teachers, who appear relatively more effective in virtual instruction than their less-experienced peers, and by the very best in-person teachers, some of which experience large declines in relative effectiveness when shifting to remote instruction.

Four-day school week (4DSW) schedules are growing rapidly across the U.S., with school districts citing perceived benefits to teacher recruitment and retention and student attendance as motivations for adopting the schedule. This study uses panel data from Colorado, one of the states with the highest prevalence of 4DSWs, to investigate the impacts of the 4DSWs on the percentage of teachers with shortage credentials, teacher attrition rates, and student attendance rates. Utilizing a synthetic control difference-in-differences research design, we find 4DSWs have small negative or statistically insignificant effects on teacher recruitment and retention outcomes and find little variation in these effects by school rurality. Examining student attendance outcomes, we estimate a meaningfully small 0.76 percentage point reduction in attendance rates associated with adopting a 4DSW in non-rural schools (equivalent to 46% of these schools' typical yearly fluctuations in ADA) but do not detect an effect in small rural or non-rural schools. These findings suggest that these purported benefits of 4DSWs are not realized in Colorado, warranting concern about the continued use and expansion of this schedule given prior evidence of its negative average impacts on student achievement.

More than half of states have implemented tuition-free college policies aimed at reducing attendance costs and incentivizing enrollment. We review the academic literature on the design features and impacts of these tuition-free policies, and we analyze an initiative Virginia implemented in 2021 called Get a Skill, Get a Job, Get Ahead (G3), which provides tuition-free community college to students enrolled in eligible associate degree, certificate, and noncredit occupational training programs in five high-demand fields. Our descriptive analysis of G3 from 2016-17 through 2022-23 shows that both institutions and students responded to the tuition-free messaging and eligibility criteria. Specifically, G3-eligible institutional program offerings and student enrollment in such programs both increased by roughly 30% within the first two years of program implementation. While Virginia's tuition-free policy promotes enrollment in targeted occupational programs, overall enrollment effects are partially offset by a 3% enrollment reduction in aid-ineligible transfer-oriented programs. To promote skill development and improve labor market outcomes, policymakers should ensure that programs eligible for tuition-free college include pathways to longer term credentials.

Student service member/veteran (SSM/V) university enrollment has grown exponentially in recent years. In response, many U.S. universities have developed military-focused student services to address navigational and social challenges SSM/Vs face on campus. While research suggests these services are beneficial, few studies have empirically examined how often contemporary SSM/Vs engage with them across universities, how engagement connects to predictors of university success, or how SSM/Vs describe such connections. Using social capital theory, surveys (n=531), and interviews (n=59) of SSM/Vs across four universities, we analyze SSM/V military-focused service engagement levels, correlations between engagement and campus belonging and institutional satisfaction, and SSM/V perspectives on engagement. Findings suggest SSM/Vs very rarely engage in these services. Higher engagement, however, is significantly associated with more campus belonging and institutional satisfaction. Interviewees describe how the moral support military-focused service staff offer while providing reliable administrative assistance, as well as SSM/V-dedicated spaces and community building, foster belonging and satisfaction.

Professional references are widely used in hiring decisions, yet their effectiveness remains largely understudied. This study analyzes structured ratings collected from the professional references of teacher applicants and conduct an experiment to see whether the ratings influence hiring managers' assessments of applicants and hiring decisions. There is little evidence that providing reference ratings to hiring managers influences their evaluations of candidates or hiring choices in productive ways. However, the analysis suggests that reference ratings are predictive of future job performance independent of other applicant information available to hiring managers. The result is a paradox: reference ratings offer potentially low-cost, high-value information, but hiring managers do not appear to make productive use of them.

This report provides formative data about the implementation of projects associated with the Pennsylvania Bureau of Special Education's Attract, Prepare, and Retain (APR) efforts during the 2023-24 school year. We surveyed or interviewed students and educators participating in six such projects: Developing Future Special Educators Grants, APR Mentoring Project, Networking and Learning Communities, Learning Institutes, Accelerated Programs for PK-12 Special Education Teacher Certification Grant, and American Sign Language programs. For the first three APR projects, these findings build on data from the first year of project implementation in the 2022-23 school year. And for the latter three projects that were introduced in 2023-24, these data provide early evidence about how participants view their experiences with these projects. [This project is funded by a contract with PaTTAN Pittsburgh and the Bureau of Special Education at the Pennsylvania Department of Education.]

Teacher turnover is a perennial concern, especially in low-performing, high-poverty schools. While districts and schools may try to anticipate and mitigate turnover by surveying teachers about their future plans, existing research on whether teacher-reported intent is predictive of actual turnover behavior is mixed. Using unique survey data from teachers in 35 low-performing, high-poverty districts in Michigan linked at the teacher level to statewide administrative data, we are able to measure turnover behavior one, two, and three years following reported intent. We find that intent is a significant predictor of turnover and becomes increasingly predictive over time. We also find organizational commitment and school organizational conditions are important factors in teachers' intent and, to a lesser degree, actual turnover behavior.

This article clarifies historical and sociocultural factors that impact the role of STEM in the racialization of Asian Americans. Drawing on critical race and other theories of Asian American racialization, and a review of empirical research on the experiences of Asian American college students in STEM, we develop a conceptual framework called "STEM Asianization" that highlights the role of STEM ideology in the model minority racialization of Asian Americans. Consequences for Asian American students include (1) erasure of the intersectional experiences of minoritized Asian American students; (2) dehumanization of Asian Americans and establishment of a bamboo ceiling; (3) representation of Asian Americans as a perpetual foreigner/Yellow Peril during times of cultural and political crisis; and (4) representation of Asian Americans who cannot or do not conform to the STEM achievement narrative as a failed minority. We argue that STEM Asianization reproduces White supremacy by ideologically reinforcing the colorblind meritocracy of STEM institutions in the United States. [Additional funding provided by the Wisconsin Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation.]

We study the effect of paternity leave on early child development. We collect sur-vey data on 5,000 children under age six in Spain and exploit several extensions of paternity leave that took place between 2017 and 2021. We follow a differences-in-discontinuities research design, based on the date of birth of each child and using cohorts born in non-reform years as controls. We show that the extensions led to significant increases in the length of leave taken by fathers, without affecting that of mothers, thus increasing parental time at home in the first year after birth. Eligibility for four additional weeks of paternity leave led to a significant 12 percentage-point increase in the fraction of children with developmental delays. We provide evidence for two potential mechanisms. First, children exposed to longer paternity leave spend less time alone with their mother, and more time with their father, during their first year of life. Second, treated children use less formal childcare. Our results suggest that paternity leave replaces higher-quality modes of early care. We conclude that the effects of parental leave policies on children depend crucially on the quality of parental versus counterfactual modes of childcare. [Funding for this report was provided by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.]

This paper presents a rationale for using professional and continuing education (PaCE) units at post-secondary institutions throughout California to design and implement talent-pipelines, research and development collaborations, and other knowledge ecosystems where emerging and returning professionals can acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs), as well as the experience, they need to address the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). The paper provides an analysis of the reasons why PaCE units are uniquely positioned to address the needs of industry and job seekers, and on a timetable that keeps pace with 4IR velocity.

An ongoing debate in K-12 education policy has been between the "reform" agenda, including charter schools and school vouchers, and advocates of traditional public schools, led by educator unions. A similar split has emerged in higher education, particularly community colleges. Using California as an example, this paper: 1) summarizes the evolution of the current political divide between advocates of the "completion and success" agenda and faculty-led opponents, including the major reforms involved, 2) discusses the claims that leading organizations on each side have made, including their policy priorities, and 3) argues that the two sides share do share some areas of mutual agreement. The paper concludes by noting future policy considerations that could complicate reform efforts.

In recent years, American universities have implemented many innovative strategies to enhance the academic success of students, especially those from underrepresented backgrounds. Yet first-generation and/or low-income (FLI) college students continue to encounter barriers to success because they do not have authentic access to digital technology needed to graduate and be career-ready in our rapidly changing economy. This paper analyzes the current state of digital inequity among FLI students at Stanford University. It also reviews existing programs to address digital inequity at California State University, Fresno (Fresno State), the University of Michigan and Bowdoin College and provides guidance on developing a device program. Finally, the paper recommends strategies to better understand digital inequity and to address it in a sustainable way.

In this paper we examine academic recovery in 12 mid- to large-sized school districts across 10 states during the 2021-22 school year. Our findings highlight the challenges that recovery efforts faced during the 2021-22 school year. Although, on average, math and reading test score gains during the school year reached the pace of pre-pandemic school years, they were not accelerated beyond that pace. This is not surprising given that we found that districts struggled to implement recovery programs at the scale they had planned. In the districts where we had detailed data on student participation in academic interventions, we found that recovery efforts often fell short of original expectations for program scale, intensity of treatment, and impact. Interviews with a subsample of district leaders revealed several implementation challenges, including difficulty engaging targeted students consistently across schools, issues with staffing and limitations to staff capacity, challenges with scheduling, and limited engagement of parents as partners in recovery initiatives. Our findings on the pace and trajectory of recovery and the challenges of implementing recovery initiatives raise important questions about the scale of district recovery efforts. [The working paper received additional funding from Kenneth C. Griffin and AIR Equity Initiative.]

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented numerous challenges to students across the United States, particularly those who are parents enrolled in community colleges. California's community college system serves a diverse student population, including a significant number of non-traditional, working adults who are also parents. These students have faced unprecedented challenges due to the pandemic, including the difficulties of balancing childcare responsibilities with academic and professional obligations. This paper summarizes the preliminary findings of a study that intends to contribute to the crucial conversation around childcare needs among community college students. The focus of this study was understanding the experiences of BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) mothers with young children and the impact of COVID-19 on their educational experiences in community colleges across the state of California.