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Why you should read this article: • To refresh your knowledge of the management of type 2 diabetes • To enhance your knowledge of the type of medicines that can be used in type 2 diabetes • To learn about the benefits and potential side effects of these medicines Diabetes mellitus remains an incurable condition that is associated with serious complications such as cardiovascular and renal disease. Most people with diabetes will experience type 2 diabetes, with obesity being a major risk factor for its development. Lifestyle modifications remain central to the management of type 2 diabetes, but because of the challenges in maintaining such changes in the long term and the progressive nature of the condition, most patients also require oral medicines and, eventually, injectable medicines. Nurses have an essential role in the education, empowerment and support of patients with type 2 diabetes, and it is important that they understand the available pharmacological treatment options. This article outlines the main types of oral medicines used in type 2 diabetes, including their modes of action, advantages, cautions and side effects, as well as discussing their selection and use in clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the management of hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Also cited are the considerations in glycemic control targets including duration of disease, risks of hypoglycemia, and estimated life expectancy, as well as the treatment options for T2DM like insulin secretagogues, insulin sensitizers, and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors.

The article discusses the pros and cons of various treatments for glaucoma, according to ophthalmologist Janet B. Serle. They include Aerie Pharmaceuticals' Rhopressa (netarsudil), Bausch + Lomb's Vyzulta (latanoprostene bunod), and Aerie Pharmaceuticals' Rocklatan, a fixed dose combination of netarsudil and latanoprost.

The article discusses the role of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in relation to eye care. Acular LS and Voltaren are mentioned as the NSAID used for several years. Use of the NSAID drugs with care is mentioned due to their rare potential of causing corneal melting and toxicity in case of preexisting corneal epithelial problem. Role of NSAID in blocking enzyme prostaglandins is also discussed. INSETS: Common Conditions That Call for Topical NSAIDs;Note on Oral NSAIDs.

The article presents several studies related to swine manure management. A Canadian study shows that gender and genetics of persons working in swine barn play a role in lung health response. A study shows that adding metabolic inhibitor molybdate to swine manure reduces hydrogen sulfide emissions significantly. A University of Nebraska research suggests that feed alternatives like phytase can replace calcium-phosphate in grow-finish diets without sacrificing growth performance.

Information about several papers discussed at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) meeting in 2013 is presented. Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) results showed that participants treated with the antioxidants lutein and zeaxanthin without beta-carotene had their risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) reduced at about 18%. Automated standardization in evaluating corneal superficial punctuate keratitis (SPK) is shown not to be invariably applicable.

The article deals with the interaction between protease inhibitors and proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). PPIs are considered the most potent inhibitors of gastric acid secretion currently available and the treatment of choice for acid-related upper gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and diseases. Atanazavir protease inhibitor is considered the most sensitive to pH changes caused by PPI. The solubility of fosamprenavir is reduced when it is combined with PPIs. Also noted is the increase plasma concentration of saquinavir during concurrent PPI dosing.

Reports that McMaster University researchers in Canada have found that the enzyme telomerase becomes activated in cancer cells but not in normal body cells. Inhibitors of the enzyme as antitumor drugs; Other researchers' comments; Uncertainties about the proposed treatment.

The article discusses launch of BridgeBio-backed subsidiary biotechnology firm Navire Pharma by BridgeBio Pharma and the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center. Topics discussed include focus of Navire on developing small-molecule inhibitors of tyrosine phosphatase SHP2, comments from Benjamin G. Neel of New York University's Perlmutter Cancer Center regading the protein and Shafique Virani of Navire regarding their interest in tumors.

The article explores the impact on patients of the shortage of the first-line glaucoma therapy, dorzolamide in the U.S. Topics covered include the revelations of the shortages on how generic molecules are supplied in the ophthalmology industry, the damage brought by the lack of accountability and commitment from generic manufacturers of dorzolamide, and brinzolamide as the most logical alternative to dorzolamide.

The article discusses a study which investigated the effectiveness of intravitreal injection of risuteganib for intermediate nonexudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Topics covered include the safety profile of risuteganib in this study, the drug's mechanism of action such as its ability to regulate integrin function, and the potential of risuteganib as a treatment for dry AMD.

The article reports on a 2016 study by chemical biologist Ralph Mazitschek and colleagues of Massachusetts Institute of Technology that developed a method to control gene expression in cells with enzyme inhibitors triggered by visible light.

The article reports that pharmaceutical companies Eli Lilly & Co. and AstraZeneca are closing down Phase III studies of the Alzheimer's treatment lanabecestat, an oral beta-secretase 1 cleaving enzyme (BACE) inhibitor as two trials showed its unlikeliness to slow down patients' cognitive decline.

The article talks about the identification of a small molecule IMP-1088 that prevents rhinovirus reproduction by the inhibition of the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase. Topics discussed include rhinovirus being the cause of common colds in addition to being responsible for worsening symptoms of diseases including asthma and cystic fibrosis.

The article reports on purchase of Redx Pharma's inhibitor of BTK, an enzyme involved in B-cell development by Loxo Oncology and adds B-cell cancer treatment Imbruvica marketed by AbbVie and other BTK inhibitors in clinical studies covalently bind to the enzyme.

The article discusses the annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research that was held in April 2014 and annual meeting of the American Society of Clinical Oncology that was held in May 2014. Topics include palbociclib, developed by New York-based pharmaceutical company Pfizer drug that blocks two proteins called cyclin-dependent kinases, its large potential impact to patients with estrogen-receptor positive breast cancer and biomarkers to guide the use of CDK 4/6 inhibitors.

The article focuses on a research related to the analysis of enzyme-inhibitor kinetics by using composition gradient multi-angle light scattering (CG-MALS). Topics discussed include the separation of human thrombin A and antithrombin III, calculation of apparent weight-averaged molar mass by using ultraviolet (UV) and MALS signals and the use of molecular weight (MW) for calculating the second order rate constant.

The author reflects on the vismodegib, a hedgehog pathway inhibitor discovered by Genentech for the treatment of advanced basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The author mentions that the vismodegib which is the first drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for BCC can be taken as a daily 150-milligram (mg) capsule. She adds that the key proteins of hedgehog pathway is bonded by the vismodegib.

The article offers brief information on several pharmaceutical products including Nucynta ER extended-release opioid analgesic from Janssen Pharmaceuticals Inc., Xalkori kinase inhibitor from Pfizer Inc., and Firazyr icatibant injection from Shire PLC.

The article provides an overview of the study which examined the significance on developing Rho-kinase inhibitors as a new class of ocular hypotensive drugs. The study has shown the potential of the drugs in revolutionizing the treatment of primary open-angle glaucoma and in providing new insights about its pathophysiology. It features Dr. David L. Epstein, discussed the study at the annual meeting of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology in Florida.

The article discusses the development of a new method in synthesising levoglucosan by researchers by a team of chemical engineers and chemists which can be used as a material for making renewable plastics and a building block for making drugs such as SGLT2 inhibitors for type 2 diabetes.

The article discusses the results of a pooled analysis of the RECORD program evaluating the oral Factor Xa inhibitor rivaroxaban.

In this article, the author focuses on the importance of Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes with focus on the CYP3A4. Topics discussed include CYP3A4 enzyme metabolizing half of all drugs on the market; drug toxicity of CYP3A4 substrates due to inhibition of CYP3A4; and the CYP3A4 being considered as the most important of the CYP450 enzymes for drug metabolism and for drug interactions. It presents a table which lists CYP3A4 inhibitors such as Almorexant, Delavirdine and Lomitapide.

Provides information on systemic drug updates in optometry. Impact of anti-cholinergic drugs on eyes with occludably narrow irridocorneal angles; Ophthalmic side effect of topiramate; Effect of statins on macular degeneration.

Reports on the potential of statins in lowering intra-ocular pressure. Relaxation of trabecular network and ciliary body cells. INSET: Take-Home Message.

Cites research at Ariad Pharmaceuticals on a compound that inhibits cell signaling by the Src homology 2 (SH2) protein domain in living cells, published in volume 97 of the `Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.' Design and synthesis of the AP22408 compound; Difficulties in designing SH2 inhibitors with selective in vivo activity; Potential application as a drug for osteoporosis.

The article discusses a study by researcher Laurence M. Morel at the Florida-based University of Florida and her colleagues as of February 2015, which reveals that two metabolic inhibitors, 2-deoxyglucose and metformin, reverse lupus symptoms in mice.

Reports on a research on arginase, an enzyme that has tremendous effect on nitric acid (NO) production in the body. Research by scientists from the University of Pennsylvania and Boston University Medical School; Hope that arginase may serve as a possible target for impotence drugs.

The article reports on the supercomputing time granted to Cloud Pharmaceuticals Inc., provider of computational design of new drugs and subsequent rapid, information-driven drug development, to design inhibitors of multiple parasitic targets at Argonne National Laboratory. Researchers from the company would use Mira petaflops IBM Blue Gene/Q supercomputer to study inhibitors of the dihydrofolate reductase enzyme (DHFR). The comment of company chief executive officer (CEO) Ed Addison is noted.

The article discusses the study done that reveals the small changes made to the enzyme substrates including reduction of enzyme activity by adenosine even when the changes were far from the site where an enzymatic reaction occurs.

The article provides information on several generic medicines, including Torrent Pharmaceuticals Ltd.'s rabeprazole sodium delayed-release tablets to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease, clobetasol propionate foam from Renaissance Pharma, and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.'s capecitabine metabolic inhibitor tablets.

The article focuses on a research by Stockholm, Sweden-based Karolinska Institute's researchers Thomas Helleday and coworkers to identify the role of MTH1 enzyme as an anticancer target to treat cancer cells by using MTH1 inhibitors TH287 and TH588. Topics discussed include aspects of DNA damage in suppressing growth of human skin, colorectal, and breast tumors, use of mice as a laboratory animal for the research, and role of MTH1 in preventing mutations and senescence in normal cells.

The article presents information on a study according to which has found that two groups have been found that can act as inhibitors of the cancer-associated protein K-Ras.

The article discusses potential drug interactions between an enzyme inducer and an enzyme inhibitor. Co-administration of the enzyme inhibitor amiodarone and inducer bosentan may lead to interactions. Bosentan could induce the metabolism of amiodarone while amiodarone may inhibit bosentan metabolism. A study of the concurrent administration of inhibitor ritonavir and inducer St. John's wort revealed a predominant effect of enzyme inhibition.

The article reports on a study led at the University of Missouri, Columbia, according to which replacing the terminal substituent group on a small-molecule drug candidate with a carborane cage could increase the molecule's potency as an enzyme inhibitor.

A correction to the article about an inhibitor of fatty acid amide hydrolase is presented.

The article discusses the factors that determine the time course for drug interactions caused by enzyme inhibitors. Topics include the less intuitive approach needed when estimating the time course of interactions caused by enzyme induction, and the need to consider the delayed offset of a discontinued enzyme inducer when monitoring drugs that have been newly prescribed.

The article reports on a click chemistry-based assay which allows researchers to conduct high-throughput screens to find inhibitors of the gut hormone ghrelin, a target for obesity and diabetes drugs. According to research associate Amanda L. Garner and chemistry professor Kim D. Janda, the catalytic enzyme-linked click-chemistry assay (cat-ELCCA) they developed is highly sensitive for ghrelin-O-acyltransferase (GOAT), which activates ghrelin by esterifying an inactive form with a fatty acid group.

The article offers information on the development of a kinase enzyme inhibitor which may be used in the treatment of melanoma. Researchers from Plexxikon discovered the drug candidate PLX4-32 by screening for small scaffolds that has a weak bond with the kinase B-Raf, which causes metastatic melanoma and whose mutation can be found in about half of all types of melanomas. A potential B-Raf inhibitor was developed from the scaffold core.

The article discusses results of a study which led to the discovery of the first potent non-bisphosphonate inhibitors of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS), an enzyme associated with cancers and osteoporosis.

The article offers brief information on generic drug products including the Aztreonam for Injection USP from APP Pharmaceuticals Inc., Arimidex nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor from Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, and Clindamycin Palmitate Hydrochloride for Oral Solution USP from Paddock Laboratories Inc.

The article focuses on the Reduction by Dutasteride of Prostate Cancer Events (REDUCE) trial by G. L. Andriole published in the "New England Journal of Medicine," which indicated that the number of cancers detected on biopsy was decreased through the use of the 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor dutasteride in men at high risk for prostate cancer.

This article focuses on the notice issued by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and Takeda Oncology to health care professionals about revisions made to the prescribing information for bortezomib.

The article discusses a study by Jenny Chang of the Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center at Baylor College of Medicine and colleagues which examined the effect of gamma-secretase inhibitors on cancer stem cells.

The article reports that a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) can inhibit the enzyme better than benzamidine alone, as revealed in the study led by Karsten Haupt of Compiégne University of Technology in France. The protease trypsin was targeted by linking benzamidine to methacrylic acid to make a polymerizing agent and used it to synthesize polymer microgels around trypsin molecules. MIPs could also be developed for other protein interactions to control different biological activity.

The article reports the possibility for the proteasome, the garbage disposal of the cell for proteins, to become the target for a new tuberculosis drugs. It notes that a research team led by Carl Nathan found out that oxathiazolone compounds kill tuberculosis-causing bacteria by inhibiting mycobacterial proteasomes without affecting the human proteasomes. According to John S. Blanchard, the findings of the study suggests that additional determinants can be built into the next inhibitors.

The article reports on the DNA-encoded library of 800 million small molecules synthesized and screened by GlaxoSmithKline's researchers led by Barry A. Morgan to identify enzyme inhibitor. It notes that the method offers strange large library size for small-molecule screening that is also fast and inexpensive. It describes that each small molecule is attached to a DNA bar code that shows its chemical composition. Details on how the researchers develop the library are also explained.