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This study examines a Wallace Foundation-sponsored initiative aimed at improving the financial management skills and practices of 25 Chicago afterschool providers through training and coaching. Two models for this professional development were provided and each produced long-lasting improvements. Moreover, organizations receiving the less-expensive group training and coaching improved almost as much as those receiving more intensive customized coaching. The following are appended: (1) Outcome Measure Definitions; and (2) Chicago Organizations That Participated in the Strengthening Financial Management Initiative.

The workers of the 21st Century will be expected to do more reading and writing than has been done in the past. In order to be successful, one author, Langer, stated that students need to possess "high literacy." According to the literature, it is evident when reading is truly a priority and supported by all stakeholders because there are high interactions between students and teachers and students and students, regular use of technology for projects, use of electronic bulletin boards, and classrooms where a large variety of reading materials are available and where presentations, audience critiques, and meaningful feedback are an integral part of the curriculum. According to research, the majority of secondary students do not have sufficient literacy skills to be successful in this, the "Information Age." This paper presents a list of generic reading strategies to use in most content areas at the high school level. A list of specific strategies is also presented. A list of resources is included.

A study reported by The National Center for Fair and Open Testing (Black & William, 2007) found that low achievers do particularly well when provided high quality feedback about their work. The type of feedback, as well as the information provided to students about their assignments, can positively impact student learning. Providing students with formative feedback helps them adjust and modify their work. Three conditions have been identified that contribute to this effect. First, students are provided with examples (exemplars) of a good performance. They know what good performance on the assignment looks like. Second, they are provided explicit information about how their current performance relates to expectations for a good performance. Third, students are provided with information about how to close the gap between their current performance and a good performance on the task. When these conditions are present there is evidence that students make academic gains. (Contains 14 online resources.)

Much has been written about student preparation for standardized tests such as: get enough sleep, do not eat sugary food or drinks, eat a well-balanced meal, wear comfortable clothing, bring appropriate supplies especially extra #2 pencils, answer every question, write neatly and legibly, deduce wrong answers immediately and use all of the time given. For additional information see Research Briefs on Optimal Testing Environments--http://www.principalspartnership.com/TestingEnvironments.pdf and Improving Test Scores--http://www.principalspartnership.com/imptestscores.pdf. Today's high school students, the Millennials or Generation Y, process information differently than previous generations. Although you must consider the testing environment and ways to support students prior to the test, there are other considerations that will help them experience success on standardized tests. (Contains 15 online resources.)

Being clear about the reason for academic intervention programs is essential prior to establishing programs. Saturday School and tutoring are two approaches that can be helpful in student retention and increasing graduation rates but only if they are set up to meet the specific needs of the school's students. There are no common measures of the success of Saturday School programs but there are many programs that have been successful for several years. Saturday school programs fit three categories--enrichment, credit recovery, and disciplinary. There is strong evidence about the positive impact of tutoring on student academic confidence and high school graduation. But the evidence is clear that no single approach will meet the needs of students who may benefit from tutoring. Further there is evidence that when learning is personalized students are more successful. (Contains 35 online resources.)

Traditionally class rankings have been used by high schools to determine valedictorians and salutatorians. These rankings have also been used by colleges to make admission decisions and for awarding scholarships. While there is no direct link between college rank and college admission, there is evidence that not using class rank can reduce stress for students and lessen the risks of taking rigorous and challenging courses in high school. According to the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC), over half of high schools no longer use class rankings (CollegeBoard inspiring minds, "Class rank and college admissions") and fewer than 20% of colleges and universities say it is important for admission decisions. (Contains 20 online resources.)

What do principals need to know about the use of electronic textbooks? Students, referred to as the Millennials or the Net Generation, born between 1980 and the present, have very different learning styles than those of previous generations. They were born into a world of everyday applications of technology and have utilized it from a very young age. In order to stay current and successfully prepare students for the world beyond high school, educators must meaningfully integrate and employ technology in the instructional program. The latest technological tool is the electronic reader (eReader) that uses digital texts (eTexts). The use of eReaders and eTexts is an emerging technology with little clear research about its use or impact on student learning. They are an attractive option because students are comfortable with the use of technology, and they open reduce expenditures and allow for more frequent updating of texts. However, their use also has significant instructional implications for teachers and students. (Contains 26 online resources.)

What needs to be considered when establishing a writing center? Writing labs have a long history on college campuses, the main purpose of which is to assist students to become better writers. Although the information on writing centers at the high school level is at best, limited, the literature reported that the number of students using writing labs increased each year in use. There are many issues and questions that must be explored and answered when determining if the school will benefit from opening a writing center. Some considerations and support activities of a writing center are enumerated in this paper. (Contains 22 online resources.)

According to Johnson and Johnson, group work helps increase student retention and satisfaction, develops strong oral communication and social skills, as well as higher self-esteem (University of Minnesota, n.d.). Group work, when planned and implemented deliberately and thoughtfully helps students develop cognitive and leadership skills as well as a sense of responsibility, all of which are required in the contemporary work place. Learning goes into one's long-term memory when it is challenging, meaningful, and relates to the real world. When students are asked to solve genuine problems, they own the problem and will work diligently to solve it. Group work provides these indispensable experiences for students. (Contains 15 resources.)

Despite the numerous advantages of a year-round schedule, there are significant political hurdles to its implementation. The most successful year-round schools are those where leaders worked closely with staff and families to maximize the benefits, minimize the costs, and build support for modifying the traditional school calendar. The research on the benefits and drawbacks of the year-round schedules is at best, inconclusive. A traditional summer vacation can impact student learning. Students from lower socioeconomic families tend to lose between two to two and a half months of math computation skills and often lose some spelling and reading comprehension skills during that time. Support for a year-round model is higher among those who have experience with the model and lower among those with no experience. Teachers and principals in schools on year-round schedules report that there are several advantages to a year-round model. The advantages and disadvantages of a year-round schedule are presented in this paper. (Contains 18 online resources.)

Suspension from school is directly related to student learning. When students are suspended from school they are deprived of instructional time. Often the students that are suspended most frequently are those behind academically. Principals have worked with their staff to identify several alternatives to school suspension. First and foremost, is the importance of a clear discipline code that supports positive student behavior. It is also important to be proactive rather than reactive and to build capacity for appropriate student behavior. (Contains 16 online resources.)

There are many kinds of classroom assessment--from informal observation of students to more formal exams and standardized tests. Two categories have been identified--formative assessments and summative assessments. Formative assessments are used by teachers to provide feedback to students and to guide improvement of instruction. For example, if a teacher notices that some students did not learn a concept, she or he can try a different instructional strategy or re-teach the content. Formative assessments also allow students to monitor their progress. Formative assessment is often used to make decisions about instructional practices. Summative assessments evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs and services and occur at the end of an academic year or other pre-determined time. A summative assessment is used to determine student competency at an identified point in time. For example, most states require a standardized test at certain grades. They are useful in determining if students have mastered certain content and to identify curricular areas needing more attention. (Contains 17 online resources and 5 print resources.)

What does the research indicate are the effects of medicating or not medicating adolescents with ADHD? Many parents and health care providers are rethinking and questioning the long-term effects of medication on children. Whether or not to medicate adolescents with ADHD is a conundrum that many parents face. Some parents believe their child will grow out of it, others feel that living a healthy lifestyle is the answer, while a number of parents are certain that medication will help. Research shows that there is not single right answer. In a study of 53 adults with ADHD who had never received medication to treat it, and 44 adults that did not have ADHD, it was found that those with ADHD had lower levels of dopamine receptors and transporters. These affect a person's attention and motivation levels and their response to rewards. It was suggested that those with low dopamine levels might be more prone to drug abuse and over eating because these things can stimulate the reward receptors. A recent study of elementary school students with ADHD showed that those who had taken medication for the condition appeared to score 2.9 points higher in math and 5.4 higher in reading than their peers who had not taken medication. In other research, it was found that there was on average, a three-year developmental delay in the frontal cortex among students with ADHD. Two other studies offer some guidance. In one study it was reported that as people who have ADHD age, there is more of a tendency to voluntarily stop taking medication, taking it sporadically or over medicating. The second study reported that the longer a stimulant was taken, the less effective it became. More than 60% stopped taking their medication within eight years while 20% did not benefit from stimulants. (Contains 17 online resources.)

Secretary of Education, Duncan, proclaimed to a group of teachers in Colorado that if students were to be more competitive with those from other countries, in particular, China and India, they needed to be in school six days a week for at least 11 months a year (Associated Press, 2009). Although longer school days, weeks and years are not currently the norm, many schools throughout the United States operate different forms of programs on Saturdays. The most common tend to be for enrichment/academic support, course credit/absentee make-up and discipline. According to Cotton (2000), a successful Saturday school program has the following characteristics: (1) all staff are dedicated to well-disciplined classrooms and school, so that all students are more able to learn; (2) expectations are clear, explicit, well-known, enforceable and enforced; (3) rules and procedures have been developed by faculty and students; (4) administration is highly visible and supportive; (5) teachers have the freedom to take care of the classroom issues and the administration takes care of the more serious violations; and (6) punishment should fit the crime and needs to be viewed as being corrective. (Contains 23 online resources.)

What is a scholastic audit? The purpose of the audit is to assist individual schools and districts improve. The focus is on gathering data and preparing recommendations that can be used to guide school improvement initiatives. Scholastic audits use a multi-step approach and include: (1) Preparing for the Audit; (2) Audit process; (3) Audit report; and (4) Follow-up. (Contains 10 online resources.)

What are the positives and negatives of zero tolerance? What should be considered when examining a school's program? Although there are no definitive definitions of zero tolerance, two commonly used ones are as follows: "Zero tolerance means that a school will automatically and severely punish a student for a variety of infractions" (American Bar Association, 2001); and The U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement defined zero tolerance as: "A policy that mandates predetermined consequences or punishments for specific offenses" (Burk). There are different points-of-view about the value of and impact of zero-tolerance policies. This paper summarizes the most significant findings. (Contains 9 online resources.)

"One size does not fit all," usually refers to differentiation and how students learn. However, it can also be applied to what grade levels should be included in a new high school setting. What is feasible for one school district and its students may not be so for another (Howley, 2002; McEntire, 2005). "The underlying issue is how should we configure educational institutions, not what grade-span configuration is best" (Howley 2002). Nevertheless, the research is clear about the important components that should be considered when establishing a high school campus. This paper presents a list of questions to consider when opening a new high school. (Contains 17 online resources.)

A high school principal seldom has a day that goes according to plan. The principal's schedule more often than not, is dictated by others and routinely extends several hours beyond a regular school day. It is a job that could easily consume one's life, to the detriment of finding and maintaining any semblance of balance between their professional and personal lives. Although at times, work or personal life may take precedence due to specific circumstances and/or activities, striving for the equilibrium of a healthy and balanced life allows the principal to bring their best to school and real life, both of which will reap the benefits (Rauh, 2005). (Contains 10 resources.)

Although technology affects everyone's lives in a many ways, effective utilization of it has been slow to enter America's classrooms. The expectations of Millennial students (those born between 1980-2000) are different from those from previous generations. They expect immediate feedback, are skilled multitaskers and use various technological resources to learn (Conceicano, 2007; Shelton & Saltsman, 2004; Peiz). Online courses have been offered for adult learners attending college and in other settings for more than ten years, but are a relatively new instructional delivery model at the high school level. "Today's challenge is to ensure that information technology increases the quantity of educational opportunities while maintaining or enhancing the quality of those opportunities" (NEA Guide to Online Courses). Online courses can provide: (1) more course offerings, especially in small schools and/or in a specialty content where there are not enough students in one school to justify having the class or there is not a qualified teacher to provide instruction; (2) classes for students who may be advanced in a content area, which will allow them to continue their education at a higher level; and (3) access to courses for students who are not in the regular classroom setting. "Online learning is a type of distance education in which teachers and learners are physically separate and instruction and content are delivered through the Internet" (Clark, 2008). These programs should have a qualified and certified teacher teaching it who works and interacts with and provides timely feedback to the students. (Contains 11 online resources.)

Students need to be competent in science because of its impact on everyday decision-making, the rapid pace of change and the increasing interdependent global economy (Lawton, 2007; U.S. Department of Education, 2000; Lederman, 1998). According to the National Research Council, "Teachers of science should develop communities of science learners that reflect the intellectual rigor of scientific inquiry and the attitudes and social values conducive to science learning" (1996). The overarching goals of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) and the National Research Council (1996) are for every student to: (1) be scientifically literate; (2) know and understand the natural world; (3) use appropriate scientific processes and principles in making decisions; and (4) increase economic productivity. (Contains 21 online resources.)

Meeting the needs of every student so that they can be successful in the real world and life is one of the primary goals of education. In this era of high stakes standardized testing and No Child Left Behind, it is expected that all students should achieve at the same academic levels. Yet, no two students are identical so it makes logical sense that their needs and achievement levels will not be the same. According to IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004), students who have been identified with special needs are expected to achieve and be successful in the least restrictive environment that is as inclusive as possible. "...school districts are required to educate students with disabilities in regular classrooms with their nondisabled peers, in the school they would attend if not disabled, to the maximum extent appropriate" ("Inclusion, least restrictive environment [LRE], mainstreaming"). With this in mind, students with disabilities could be receiving their education in the regular education classroom, a mainstream setting, an inclusive setting or a self-contained classroom. What can be done, regardless of their educational setting, to help high school students with special needs be successful and achieve at their highest levels? (Contains 16 online resources.)

What is service-learning and how can students and community benefit from it? With the pressure of covering all of the content, passing tests, meeting standards and making AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress), how is it realistically feasible to make learning more meaningful so that students are able to take it and utilize it in real life? There is no panacea, however, one way to help support students in this is through service-learning. The goal of service-learning is to logically connect the curriculum to a service activity where students are actively engaged in a complex and meaningful project. In turn, this project involvement demands that they take the content information and apply it to a real-life problem and/or issue. Research has found that benefits from service-learning include: (1) improvement in grades; (2) higher attendance rates; (3) lowers drop-out rates; (4) development of personal and social responsibility; (5) builds positive and collaborative relationships between students and teachers and students and the community; (6) reverses student disengagement; (7) provides more motivation for learning; (8) develops a sense of civic and democratic awareness and responsibility; (9) fewer behavior problems; (10) exposure to different careers; and (11) crosses cultural and class barriers. Studies also found that students with higher GPAs were more likely to participate in school-service programs than those with lower ones; students in private schools were more likely to contribute time to service than those in public schools; and those who participated in service programs and came from low SES backgrounds, tended to make higher grades and had smaller achievement gaps than their non-participating peers. (Contains 18 resources.)

What is homework? What value and benefit does it have for students? Some common perceptions from the students' perspective is that it is busy work, it takes away from other activities (i.e. sports, clubs, hanging out with friends, jobs, etc.), and/or it prevents them from getting as much sleep as they would like. From the teachers' perspective: it develops responsibility and good study habits, it helps the students prepare for what they will experience in college, and/or it takes precious time to design, assign and grade. The amount of homework given to students has varied over the past century, however, the amount of time spent on homework is up 51% since 1981 ("The myth about homework"). With the advent of No Child Left Behind, daily homework time has increased substantially. Countries that outscore America on standardized tests such as Japan, Denmark and the Czech Republic assign less homework than do the U.S. schools. Conversely, countries that score low on standardized tests, such as Greece, Thailand and Iran, give a much higher amount of homework. Some research has found those who do homework tend to "...outperform students who do not do it by 69%" ("Review of literature on homework"). (Contains 27 resources.)

In education, the pendulum continues to swing from one side to the other, all in an effort to find the "right" way to educate all of its students. The concept of empowerment, what it means and who should be empowered to provide the "best" way to instruct students, has been one that has been explored from many different perspectives from students, to parents, to community, to business, to teachers, to districts, to states, and to the federal government. In the most recent wave of how to best meet the needs of students, New York City, New York and Clark County, Nevada have been leading the field in instituting "Empowerment Schools." According to New York City's reference guide, "Empowerment schools are premised on the fundamental belief that schools will only succeed at the highest levels if school leaders are given greater authority to design their own paths to success." As of this writing, there is little research about the effectiveness of this model. Although this structure is relatively new, it is another step towards the recognition that the "one size fits all model" is not working and that each school is the best judge about how to most effectively meet the needs of its students. (Contains 17 online resources.)

Cultural proficiency and diversity are often used interchangeably, yet there are some distinct differences between them. Cultural proficiency is the umbrella under which diversity falls. According to one source, "Cultural proficiency is a way of being that allows individuals and organizations to interact effectively with people who differ from them" ("Cultural Proficiency: What is it?"). Diversity includes: race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, social class, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, language, friends, geography, political views, and social organizations ("Cultural proficiency: Definitions; How to teach students who don't look like you: Culturally relevant teaching"). Teacher turn over in urban schools is around 50%, higher than in low-poverty schools, and more than half transfer or leave the profession in five years ("Editor's review of See you when we get there: Teaching for change in urban schools by Gregory Michie"). Public schools have been viewed as the place where all students go to become Americanized. "Furthermore, far too often, the cultural differences of these children are equated with cultural inferiority and not surprisingly, children from these groups are more likely to do poorly in school, get into trouble, or drop out" (Confronting the challenge of diversity in education). (Contains 14 online resources.)

Helping regular education students transition from high school to the post-secondary world can be a daunting task. Assisting students with special needs do this can be quite intimidating. According to the Harris Poll 2000, 20% of the general population was unemployed, while 71% of adults with disabilities were unemployed (Miller, Lombard, & Corbet, p. 3). The National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability stated that 36% of high school dropouts have some type of learning disability, 59% have some type of emotional or behavioral disorder and 75% of those in the juvenile justice system have some form of a disability ("The Workforce Development System and the professional development of youth service practitioners: Why professional development?") The fastest growing occupations are in technology and include: computer and data management, public relations services, motor vehicles and equipment manufacturing, engineering, manufacturing electronic components and accessories ("National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability"). All of these careers require higher-level thinking and analytical skills. (Contains 1 resource and 23 online resources.)

While fiscal resources continue to dwindle, the mandates of NCLB have placed restraints on those who can be hired and schools are expected to continue to do more to meet the intellectual, social and emotional needs of students, what can be done to realistically help meet the increasing demands? Developing and maintaining partnerships with a variety of stakeholders, may be a way to accomplish this. There is more to this than the adopt a school model or the school needs money and/or materials, so what can a partner do to provide them? According to Sammon and Becton (2001) 90% of partnerships fail in a year because of these approaches. Currently, successful programs are taking the time to grow and nurture their partnerships. In fact, according to the latest research, funding should not be part of the equation when soliciting partnerships. These relationships should be about providing opportunities for student growth. This paper offers tips on how to establish and develop partnerships as well as some ways to ulitize partners. (Contains 21 online resources.)

How many people reading this brief believes they could financially survive in a household of four people on $19,784 a year? Yet, this was the official poverty threshold as determined by the federal government for 2005. During this same year, 17% of children under 18 lived below the poverty line, of which 14% were white, 11% Asian, 28% Hispanic and 34% black or one out of six people under 21 years of age lived in poverty. Pupils who are living at or near the poverty line are exposed to more high risk factors than those who are considered to come from middle or upper income levels. The majority of public schools in the United States have students who live at or near the poverty level, yet it is incumbent upon the schools to provide equal access to and an equitable program for all of their students. The literature is rich with examples of programs that high schools are doing to provide appropriate and realistic avenues for these students to move out of the cycle of poverty. From 2002-2006, NASSP (National Association of Secondary School Principals) with financial support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, sponsored a program examining 25 high functioning schools with at least 50% minority/high poverty population, 50% who qualify for free/reduced meals and from this group, at least 90% attend some sort of post-secondary educational program. (Contains 22 online resources.)

What are some ways in which to get parents meaningfully involved in their child's high school? According to the research, the most successful programs are those that provide a variety of ways in which parents can be actively engaged in their child's academic life. Joyce Epstein, Director of the National Network of Partnership Schools, out of Johns Hopkins, has established six types of parent involvement: (1) Parenting; (2) Communicating; (3) Volunteering; (4) Learning at Home; (5) Decision Making; and (6) Collaborating with Community. Some specific ways in which parents can become more meaningfully engaged and involved in their child's school and/or academic life are enumerated in this paper. (Contains 18 online resources.)

What are programs for ELL? The United States is made up of immigrants and each group has had to face the challenges of learning the culture and/or the English language. There has been a huge backlash in this country against bilingual education. A common sentiment about it has been that if a person lives in America they should speak English and bilingual education does not teach them to do that. According to a vast amount of research in this area, education in the primary language helps secondary language development because it provides students knowledge in the various content areas and helps them develop literacy in the primary language, which is a short cut to literacy in the secondary language. It takes about two years for a student to be able to speak English but four to five years to have the language for academic literacy. The primary goal of bilingual education has been and continues to be to provide the skills for students to become proficient in English and have the appropriate grade/content skills and literacy. There is no one program that will meet the needs of all of the ELL's. When a program is decided upon and implemented, it should be able to meet the needs of the given student population. Prior to program implementation, the following should be examined and explored: (1) What are the school's goals?; (2) What are the school's language acquisition goals?; (3) How do the current programs meet the school's goals?; (4) What are available resources?; (5) What are the needs and special characteristics of the school's ELL population?; and (6) What are some program models and how will they help meet the students' needs? (Contains 17 online resources.)

Research indicates that academic achievement from middle school to high school decreases while behavior problems, suspensions and expulsions increase early in ninth grade. Hertzog and Morgan found in their research in Georgia and Florida, that those high schools that just did building tours and meetings with school counselors for strictly registration purposes, had the highest drop out and retention rates in ninth grade ("Building bridges between middle schools and high schools"). The literature in this area repeatedly reiterated that the transition into high school is not a solitary event but one that takes place over time. Students entering high school look forward to having more freedom, choice, friendships and extracurricular activities. They also have several fears that include: taking tougher courses, having more homework, making bad grades, getting lost, not making friends, not being liked, being bullied, being teased, and not feeling safe. There are numerous programs and ideas that can take place over time to welcome and orient freshman to high school. This paper offers ways to successfully orient freshman to high school. (Contains 14 online resources.)

Since implementing NCLB (No Child Left Behind), raising of test scores and making AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) have been paramount in the schools and the search has been on to find "THE" answer in the schools' quest to attain these goals. When hunting for appropriate methods to reach these objectives, needs assessments are often designed in hopes of gaining information, often about what is not working. Prior to sending out a needs assessment, there are several questions to consider. Making change for the sake of change is ineffective, which has been proven repeatedly. In establishing a workable plan to ascertain how effective programs are and where the matches and gaps are, it is highly recommended that the stakeholders have input into it. In devising a needs assessment, it is suggested that the school work with an expert in the field who is well-versed in designing effective instruments. This paper offers steps that can be taken in order to effect substantive and meaningful change. (Contains 10 online resources.)

In 2002, the United States Supreme Court confirmed that in the school's role of in loco parentis, drug testing of students who were involved in athletics and extracurricular activities was constitutional. In a state of the union address, George W. Bush stated that drug testing in schools had been effective and was part of "our aggressive community-based strategy to reduce demand for illegal drugs" ("Let the love flow: Student drug testing"). In an effort to help inhibit and dissuade drug use, Federal funding has been made available to help schools pay for drug testing, which depending on the type of test used, can range from $20-$60 per student. The results of drug testing programs at best, are mixed. At a school with a mandatory drug testing program, the use of drugs, but not alcohol, was lower; and there was no association between school-based drug testing and students' reports of drug use. The American Academy of Pediatrics has trepidations about drug testing adolescents at school or home. They highly recommend that instead of punitive measures, there be more adequate resources for assessment, treatment and earlier rehabilitation measures. To test or not to test? Each side has their own perspective. Determining if there should be a drug testing program is a complex and complicated process. If a school decides to do drug testing, it was highly recommended that it should be a component of a total program to reduce students' use of drugs. (Contains 15 online resources.)

According to the 2000 census, high school dropouts had a 52% employment rate, compared to 71% for high school graduates and 83% for college graduates. According to NCSE, the national dropout rate is 30% of which 80% had been chronically absent from school ("School attendance tracking: Challenges and effective practices"), which puts the high school completion rate in the United States at tenth in the world ("One-third of a nation"). Excessive absences and truancies usually equate to poorer achievement, mediocre self-esteem, lower promotion and graduation rates and lesser employment potential, all of which frequently lead to a student dropping out of school. Many programs work with law enforcement and the judicial system to enforce attendance and truancy policies. These programs often hold parents accountable for their child's attendance. Sanctions are often in terms of fines levied against the parents. Students are often given community service to serve on their own time as a consequence of poor attendance. It was highly encouraged in the literature that schools and districts provide incentives for students with good and improved attendance on a regular basis. Some schools offer things such as free lunch coupons, free breakfast, pizza parties, ice-cream socials, certificates and have regular recognition ceremonies for these students. Other recommendations to encourage good attendance are provided, as well as common characteristics of successful attendance and truancy programs. (Contains 37 online resources.)

Does clothing make the person or does the person make the clothing? How does what attire a student wears to school affect their academic achievement? In 1996, President Clinton cited examples of school violence and discipline issues that might have been avoided had the students been wearing uniforms ("School uniforms: Prevention or suppression?"). In his 1998 State of the Union address, he mentioned the positive impact uniforms had made in the Long Beach Unified School District, which has a highly diverse ethnic and socioeconomic population that is also the third largest district in California. When students have continuous negative experiences in school, dropping out and delinquency tend to be the common responses. The role of schools is to provide a positive, safe and secure learning environment where students feel protected enough to explore and develop their intellectual and social competencies. Hard evidence that proves the wearing of uniforms provides a direct link to better academic achievement is not conclusive, however, there is evidence that supports there are fewer discipline problems/referrals and violence as well as higher attendance rates since the implementation of a uniform policy. What appears to have been overlooked in the data analysis is the effect of other programs that are often being implemented at the same time as the uniform policy and may also have a direct impact on the discipline and attendance issues. There are many arguments for and against school uniform policies. The pros and cons of school uniform are listed in this paper. (Contains 14 online resources.)

"The principal is the instructional leader of the school" has been reiterated and restated repeatedly in the past 30 years. Theoretically this concept is the idea, however, the reality of building administrators' lives seldom leave appropriate time to plan, let alone implement reasonable curricular and building goals. When an administrator is new to a building, they must immediately learn about the culture and climate of the school as well as get acquainted with the faculty, staff and community leaders. This is a tall order for anyone, yet there are many outstanding site administrators who manage to do it all exceptionally well, make it look effortless and their students make impressive academic gains. This paper highlights things that should be considered in setting realistic goals for curricular and building goals. (Contains 6 online resources.)

What are the purposes of exams? Would teachers give exams if they were not grading students? Exams provide information that should inform the instructional program, let the students know their strengths as well as areas for growth, and tell teachers what information their students know and what they still need to know. When determining how students will be assessed, it was advised in the literature that the following questions be asked: (1) What is being assessed?; (2) Why is the information being assessed?; (3) Why are the students being assessed?; and (4) How will the results be used? Once these queries have been answered, the type of test/exam and its questions should be designed, reviewed and revised. The most common tests are objective, primarily because they are easier to grade than essays. Exam design is more challenging than it might initially appear. Some considerations: (1) include several different types of items; (2) insure that all objectives have been included and are reliable; (3) use language that all students can understand; (4) keep track of the levels of questions so that higher as well as medium and lower levels are included; (5) type it and make certain it is error free; and (6) provide ample space to write answers.

What is the role of "zero" in grading? According to several authors, giving students a zero lets them too easily off the hook, seldom serves as a motivator for them to do better and is not an accurate reflection of what has been learned. While students do need to be responsible and accountable for their work, assigning a zero skews the grade and it tends to be inaccurate. An equitable distribution would make the grade more appropriately representative of what a student had learned. Typically grade spans are 100-94=A, 93-84=B, 83-73=C, 72-64=D, 63-0=F. If using letter grades, an "F" equates to a 0. The literature suggests that it should be a 1.0 not a zero. According to several articles, each mark should have an appropriate influence on a student's grade. Some schools and districts are exploring recording a 50 or 60 in lieu of an "F" or "0" because then it helps make the spread more equitable. An example of scoring in the Olympics was cited where the high and low scores are thrown out so that one judge is not in control of the results (Policies work against standards). A zero plays the role of the judge that is in total control of the outcome of the grade. Faculty should discuss and agree upon the following when establishing a grading policy: (1) learning goals of the school; (2) the purposes of grades; (3) factors that should be included when grading; (4) the role of zero and how lack of achievement will be assessed and recorded; (5) weighting of grades; (6) ways in which to document student progress; (7) how feedback will inform the instructional program; (8) programs that will assist students and help them become responsible for their own learning; (9) communication with students and parents about the school's grading policy and expectations; (10) define and develop meaningful assessments; and (11) periodic reexamination, assessment and modification of the grading system. A list of resources is included.

To use a block schedule or a traditional schedule? Which structure will produce the best and highest achievement rates for students? The research is mixed on this due to numerous variables such as: (1) socioeconomic levels; (2) academic levels; (3) length of time a given schedule has been in operation; (4) strategies being used in the classrooms; (5) what data is being used to measure achievement rates?; (6) how are students responding to the schedule?; and (7) how long has the schedule been in effect? There is little to no support that more "in seat" time equals better achievement, yet proponents of this stated that there is more time to add depth to the content and there is less fragmentation of the curriculum. Those who favor block schedules stated that there seem to be fewer discipline problems because the students have fewer passing periods, therefore, they are not in the halls as often as they are when on a traditional schedule. Canady, professor emeritus from the University of Virginia stated, "The schools that seem to be making the best use of scheduling to raise student achievement are those that see scheduling as a resource" ("Changing Times"). The available information on scheduling is abundantly clear, that just changing the schedule will not automatically or magically insure that there will be higher achievement levels. When examining schedules, many issues need to be considered and explored: (1) What are the goals of the school?; (2) How is time in every classroom structured and used?; (3) How is the content and curricula meeting the needs of every student?; and (4) Investigate different schedules and explore those that appear as if they might meet the goals of the school. (Contains 13 online resources.)

In an effort for schools to obtain Adequate Yearly Progress, the pressure is on to make certain that students are loaded with as much information as possible in order to score well on the high stakes tests. Writing has continued to move down the list of priorities of what is taught because: it is not being tested or is minimally being assessed. The teaching of writing can be scary and overwhelming to teachers, especially those in fields other than English/Language Arts. Through ongoing training and support, teachers can be made aware of and accept that writing can support their instructional goals. Teachers can: identify their instructional goals, explore strategies to support them, determine ways to meaningfully involve students, ascertain methodologies about how to guide students in their own writing, establish ways to effectively evaluate student writing, and select ways in which to utilize the results of the students' writing. (Contains 13 online resources.)

With the advent of "Get tough on crime" and "Three strikes" in the 1980s and 1990s, correctional facilities have become overloaded with prisoners who are often repeat offenders. 51% of those imprisoned have a GED or high school diploma. Out of the remaining 49%, 36% of inmates had not completed the ninth grade and approximately a quarter of them read at or below the fourth grade level. Prior to 1998, the federal government required that states spend no less than 10% of their Adult Education budgets in correctional institutions. As a backlash to the perception that jail had become too much like a recreational facility, the law was changed so that states could not spend more than 10% in this area. To continue this trend, access to Pell Grants that had been available to prisoners, are now denied to anyone who is incarcerated. However, each state determines if a general education program in their prisons will be mandatory and how much funding will be allotted to the educational programs. The research has continuously found that the more education an inmate has, the lower the recidivism rate. With all of the cuts in the prison educational programs, the most common ones tend to be for inmates to: (1) earn a GED, where they must read at least at the eighth grade level in order to pass; (2) earn an AA, through a community college program; and (3) develop basic literacy skills. High schools and community colleges often work with representatives from correctional facilities to help provide suitable programs. (Contains 19 online resources.)

Getting through the choppy seas of curriculum reform and high stakes testing, as well as meeting predetermined standards and adequate yearly progress, is often difficult for a teacher, let alone a school or district, to ascertain what specific content should be taught and what is actually being taught. Teachers often do not know what has been taught in previous courses and have little opportunity to share that information with each other. In the 1970s and 1980s Dr. Fenwick English introduced curriculum mapping, where maps were designed by a third party. In the mid-1990s, Dr. Heidi Hayes Jacobs introduced methodology to help teachers directly navigate those murky waters of the process of curriculum mapping. At the heart of curriculum mapping is doing what is in the best interests of the students so that they are provided opportunities to meet the challenges of the world in which they will be living and working. It also allows for a changing curriculum, provides an overview of the curriculum for all stakeholders and encourages regular reflection on what is to be taught and what was taught. There are three key questions that educators should take into consideration when determining what curriculum should be taught and what is actually being taught. (1) "Who is doing what?; (2) How does our work align with our goals?; and (3) Are we operating efficiently and effectively?" Components of a successful curriculum mapping are included in this paper. (Contains 24 online resources.)

What are ways to encourage minority students and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds to take and succeed in AP classes? Advanced Placement courses and their final national standardized exams began in 1954 to help students, mostly white males, get through college more quickly so that they would have more time in the work force. 50 years later, these courses and subsequent test results are being used to gain entrance into college. One research study found that high school seniors who took no AP courses, graduated from college at a rate of only 33% by age 30. Other studies have found that just being in an AP class without taking the exam and/or not passing with a 3 or higher, do not have the same benefits as passing the exam. By passing the exam, the chances of completing college and receiving a degree are greatly increased. Currently, there is a push to offer more AP courses and encourage more minority students and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds to take them. This paper lists issues surrounding offering more courses, as well as things being done to encourage and support more student enrollment in AP courses. (Contains 25 online resources.)

Keeping high school students in school and helping them gain competence and confidence in skills so that they can be successful in the world of work and/or college is an enormous challenge. The results of one study clearly demonstrated a direct correlation between one's self-esteem and academic competence. The more competent one feels, the better the chances are that the student will successfully complete high school. Another piece of research found that African-American high school students are least likely to be on track for high school completion while Asians are most likely to be on track. The research is also clear that the ninth grade year is particularly crucial in determining if the student will graduate or drop out. In order to keep students in school where they feel it is valuable and they feel respected, it is imperative that schools offer the "...three R's: rigor, relevance, and relationships." There is no one program that will provide all of the answers to keep students in school. Programs need to be designed to meet the needs of a given school population and tied into the available resources. (Contains 19 online resources.)

With higher expectations for graduation, what are ways to keep students in school and graduate? To have a 100% graduation rate with students who are prepared for higher education or the work place is certainly a major goal of high schools. This has been strongly reinforced by schools needing to meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) as mandated by No Child Left Behind. Many schools across the United States have implemented programs that will help their students attain an appropriate level of literacy in the different content areas, do better on standardized tests and other assessments, inspire them to stay in school and graduate, and participate in a post-secondary program. This paper describes common themes expressed throughout the literature that should be considered and implemented prior to establishing specific programs. A list of program ideas is also mentioned. (Contains 19 online resources.)

How can change become institutionalized? With the advent of a new superintendent, principal, curriculum director and/or legislature, each of whom wants to make their mark with hopes of "improving" public education by introducing new programs, the message teachers receive from those who are not in the trenches is that they are incompetent and do not know what is best for students. Given this, it is no wonder that change is often viewed as a threat, which in turn creates fear and anxiety. As a result, what gets lost is that "Change is forever. Problems don't stay solved, so you have to learn to do the right thing over and over again." Fullan stated that it takes about six years for change to become institutionalized at the high school level. A critical aspect to take into account is that there is no one way to do it and what worked for one school may not work for another because the needs of the students as well as the culture and climate of the school are unique. In this paper, the necessary ingredients for successful change to occur are presented. (Contains 15 online resources.)

What do grades mean? Is there a commonly understood and acceptable definition for what a grade stands? The current grading system is approximately 100 years old. In the 1700s, students were given feedback but not grades. In 1780, Yale University began using a 4.0 system that is similar to the current system. In the 1830s, Harvard University implemented a point scale that was divided into divisions. By 1897, Mt. Holyoke College designed a letter grade system that is the most universally and widely one used today. According to an extensive survey, about 80% of schools use letter grades from the fourth grade forward. Schools need to work together to discuss and develop criteria for grading that is accurate, fair and consistent and must make the meaning known to all stakeholders. Questions to consider include the following: (1) What is/are the purpose(s) of grading?; (2) What is the definition of a grade?; (3) What should a grade represent?; (4) Is the grading system fair and equitable? How?; and (5) What learning results are expected? (Contains 11 online resources and 1 resource.)

What are some remediation programs for students who do not pass high stakes exit exams? Regardless of one's personal beliefs about high stakes exit exams, 52% of all high school students in the United States who are in public schools will be required to take and pass an exit exam. Nationally, these tests are gaining momentum. In most cases, students who do not pass the exit exam, will be denied a high school diploma. In order to help those students, some states, districts, and schools have implemented remediation and support programs, so that students can gain and practice the requisite skills to successfully pass the exit exam. A list of program suggestions is presented. (Contains 28 online resources.)

What are the benefits of a Fine Arts education? With the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2000, extreme pressure has been put on schools to concentrate the majority of their efforts and resources on reading, math and science skills. Yet, NCLB also states that every child should be well-versed in the arts. Some research has shown that when students study the arts, it leads to higher achievement in other academic areas, especially when the arts are meaningfully integrated throughout different content areas. Studies in Chicago indicated that test scores of students who studied the arts went up two times faster than those in comparable schools. A well-rounded education in the fine arts helps students develop skills such as observation skills, critical thinking skills, deeper and more complex thinking skills, spatial reasoning and temporal skills, presentation and performance skills, and reasoning skills. Gardner stated "... that skill and craft gained in the arts help students to understand that they can improve in other consequential activities and that their heightened skill can give pleasure to themselves and others" (The Arts and the Transfer of Learning, p. 154). Characteristics of successful fine arts programs are listed. (Contains 2 resources and 19 online resources.)

Currently, high school students account for 60% of food sold in cafeterias. School lunches should provide 33% of the students' energy intake, however, according to some research, it was found that it tends to only provide 19% because of the sale of "competitive" foods. Research by the U.S. Department of Agriculture found that girls ages 14-18 eat low amounts of fruits and vegetables and more than two-thirds of females in this age group exceed the daily intake amounts of fat and saturated fats. 56%-85% of adolescents consume soda daily and that percentage seems to be higher for boys. The rate of overweight and obese children under the age of 18 in the U.S. is at 15%, which has tripled over the past 20 years. By 2006-2007, schools receiving monies for students who are on free and reduced meals, must have a local wellness plan in place. Its purpose is to promote and implement a feasible plan for students to be empowered to make appropriate choices for living a healthy lifestyle. In order to do this, schools must work with all of their stakeholders, including students, parents, teachers, administrators, food services personnel, and community representatives. Many schools across the nation are trying new programs in providing healthy eating opportunities for their students. Aramark worked with several middle and high schools in Philadelphia, PA to develop concepts in healthy dining. Stonyfield Farm, an organic yogurt company, has been working to get organic food into schools. They have been successful in getting foods like Newman's Own Pretzels, Stretch Island Organic Fruit Leather, Silk Soy Milk, and Stonyfield Yogurt into vending machines in some inner-city schools, where the students have little to no access to these types of food choices and have found they are selling well. In the Results of Trying Alternative Cafeteria Options in Schools program, the students did the promotion and education on the importance of making more nutritious choices and found that when they worked with their peers, there was a substantive impact. (Contains 26 online resources.)