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Since the U.S. Office of Education figures showed (at the time of this report) that on the average, 850,000 young people were dropping out of high school every year, 800,000 more were graduated from high school with no specific marketable skills, and 900,000 were dropping out of universities, junior colleges, and training schools, the study described in this report, conducted by the National Assessment of Educational Progress, was designed to determine what these different groups knew that would help them cope with the world of work. (Four age levels--9, 13, 17, and adults aged 26-35--were respondents in the study conducted during 1973-74.) This report presents, via summary data, work-related knowledge and skills, or proficiency levels, of the four age levels and delineates the proficiency of each group according to such variables as region of the country, race (black and white), education level of parents, and size and type of community. Three chapters are included. Chapter 1 briefly discusses major findings. Chapter 2 contains definitions of the population groups and item sets analyzed in the study, and a description of the conventions used to report the data. Chapter 3 examines and compares statistical data relating to the different groups' levels of performance. Chapter 3 discusses implications. (SH) Primary type of information provided by report: Results (Selective).

The project examined the effects of learned leadership/membership skills on performance in task-oriented groups, developed competence-based instructional materials to teach such skills, and examined the effects of such skills on individual and group knowledge, skills, attitudes, and performance. Following a literature review, materials review, and needs assessment, discussions and questionnaires gathered information from teachers, parents, counselors, managers, employers, and students. Specific needs having been established, the curriculum design and prototype modules were developed. Eight priority areas were identified as those to be addressed in the development effort: Group communication, knowing and using resources, evaluation, conflict resolution, planning, coordinating activities, sharing leaderships, and decisionmaking. Extensive pilot testing over the following two years involved a variety of student settings--urban, suburban, rural; large schools and small; academically motivated students and underachievers; vocational, experimental, and traditional academic classes. Findings indicated that (1) administrators, teachers, and students appreciate the need for and value of instruction in the cooperative group interaction skills area, (2) the skills in this area of competence are difficult to teach, and (3) extended research and development--which would take into consideration further testing, teacher training, curriculum fusion, and curriculum design--would be of significant value. Appendixes contain the curriculum outline, operational definitions of effects to be tested in task-oriented groups, summary charts of selected evaluation items, and some reflections on and implications of the cooperative group interaction skills (CGIS) curriculum. (Author/TA)

Examined with 95 educable mentally retarded male Ss (9-10.5 years old) was the relationship between anxiety and outerdirectedness. Ss were given the Test Anxiety Scale for Children (TASC) and a measure of outerdirectedness involving a puzzle task. Zero correlation was found between anxiety and outerdirectedness; and the same results were found after a failure condition was imposed and the TASC was repeated to test for a change in anxiety level. Ss tested in a failure condition completed the puzzle task faster than controls; however, anxiety increased significantly after the failure condition was received. (The bulk of the document consists of a research review with approximately 90 references; and appended material including drawings of the puzzle tasks, a copy of the TASC, and parent consent forms.) (IM)

In order to study the effects of cognitive style, task structure, and task setting on student achievement and attitudes, structured and unstructured tasks were presented to students in both group and individual settings. It was postulated that through small group and individual activities an individual may display his/her best cognitive style of learning and that groups composed of individuals of differing cognitive styles may prefer to work on different types of tasks--individuals who are "field independent" can impose their own structure or strategy upon a task while individuals who are "field dependent" require more explicit directions concerning the dimensions and outcomes of the task from the teacher. It was hypothesized that student achievement will increase if a group composed of field dependent students is given explicit direction or if a field independent student is added to the group to help structure the task. Data indicate that: (1) field independent students did not differ in group versus individual achievement; (2) groups composed of both cognitive styles achieved more than those same persons acting alone; and (3) group and structured conditions were preferred by all subjects. These results suggest that the use of small groups increases student satisfaction and, for some students and certain groups, increases student achievement. (MM)

A review of the literature on cooperative, competitive, and independent reward structures and performance is presented, and conclusions are drawn which reformulate current beliefs about the interaction between reward structure and task structure. A brief theory of reward structure and performance is described, and conditions under which cooperative structures may be more effective than competitive ones are outlined. A review of the literature on reward structure and social connectedness strongly suggests that cooperative reward structures may have considerable utility in increasing attractions and reducing hostility between students. A technique which has had positive effects on both academic performance and social connectedness, Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT), is described, and suggestions are made for a direction for further research. (Author)

There is considerable disagreement concerning the age of onset and universality of attainment of Piaget's stage of formal operations. This study examines developmental differences in response to brief prompts in the use of a formal operational approach to the solution of two tasks. The subjects were 10 males and 10 females from each of Grades 5, 8, and 12. Three tasks requiring the formal operational skill of separating and testing variables were given to each subject. Results suggest that almost all the subjects could readily understand and utilize the approach of separating variables and testing each one while holding all others constant. Furthermore, the results support Piaget's claim that formal operations are available to nearly all normal young adults. Implications for the development of logical competence are discussed. (SJL)

A major premise of Piagetian theory relative to the periods of concrete and formal operations is that competence in specific logical operations is a necessary but not sufficient prerequisite to competence in other specific logical operations. The present study tested for the existence of specific concrete operations and specific formal operations that have been hypothesized to be developmental prerequisites to specific formal operations. The Multiple Hierarchical Analysis, a data analytic technique, was used to identify scales--or prerequisite sequences--that occur significantly more often than by chance. A sample of 622 junior high students were administered an assessment instrument consisting of two 16-item group administered written tests designed to measure various logical operations. The empirically-generated data of this study support the logically-generated Piagetian Theory. Also supported was the Piagetian postulation that each of the developmental periods is characterized by specific characteristics and a wholistic quality binding together the various characteristics. Combinatorial thought was found to be the quality that binds formal operations. (SJL)

This study examined the effects of different degrees of task structure on leadership between 18 married parents, 18 childless married spouses, and 18 unmarried men and women who comprised newly acquainted couples. Each couple completed three tasks which varied along the dimension of task structure and the order of task presentation. Analysis of the results indicated significant changes in leadership such that high task structure resulted in less dominance for males and lower speech durations for males and females. Medium task structure, which was confounded with high conflict arousal built into the task, resulted in the most relationship oriented type of leadership and the greatest duration of speech for both males and females. There were also significant differences among groups such that married men exhibited more task oriented leadership and dominance and less relationship oriented leadership than unmarried men. Married women who were parents exhibited less relationship oriented leadership and lower speech durations than women who did not have children. Men in all three groups showed more task oriented leadership than their female partners, but both sexes shared equally in relationship oriented leadership. (Author)

The relative effectiveness of alternative reward structures in strengthening group performance on a cooperative math task was investigated by operationalizing four reward structure treatments--one non-contingent pay treatment and three differential pay allocation treatments including two levels of inter-group competition and a group piece-rate pay contingency. In each of the four treatments eight male and eight female dyads worked on cooperative math tasks for 10 performance-pay trials. Although male dyads outperformed female dyads, group performance did not vary by pay allocation treatment, even though subjects in the non-contingent pay treatment indicated the pay system was less motivating than did subjects in the three differential pay allocation treatments. Although no main effects of treatment were indicated on various satisfaction measures, members of higher performing dyads reported higher satisfaction than members of lower performing dyads on several measures, particularly when higher performance was associated with higher pay. Feasible interpretations for why performance and differential rewarding were unrelated included uncontrolled or extraneous sources of motivation in the experimental setting and the brief duration of the work session. (Author)

Applied performance tests are instruments designed to measure performance in an actual or simulated setting. The identifying difference between applied performance and other tests is the degree to which the instrument approximates the reality of the situation in which the task must be performed. A Clearinghouse for Applied Performance Testing (CAPT) was proposed and undertaken in 1974 by a consortium of four states--Hawaii, Oregon, Pennsylvania and Washington--in cooperation with the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Initially, CAPT emphasized the collection and dissemination of materials concerned with subject matter areas included in a traditional public school setting at grade levels K-12, but since the bulk of the research had been undertaken in business, the military, vocational/occupational training, professional education and adult education, collective efforts have been expanded to facilitate finding materials adaptable for public school use. The procedures used in collecting information, and also other sources for materials on applied performance testing, are discussed. (BW)

Kindergarten and third grade children originally assessed in 1973 were retested one year later on a series of conservation and transitive inference tasks (length and weight content areas). An additional sample of matched cohort/grade subjects was assessed in the second year only to permit evaluation of repeat measurement biases for the longitudinal sample. Results indicated a lack of presentation order, slelctive survival, repeated measurement, sex, and content area significant main effects or interactions. Analyses of the longitudinal sample subjects' conservation task performances over the annual interval indicated significant grade-level distinctions, year one versus year two differences, and type of conservation distinctions. Identity conservation scores were consistently superior to equivalence conservation scores and this superiority was most notable for the younger subjects. Transitive inference tasks were significantly less difficult than equivalence conservation tasks. Most importantly, evidence for a developmental mastery sequence (transitivity to conservation) was demonstrated. Pass/fail comparisons indicated a lack of regression effects and greater growth for the conservation abilities as contrasted with transitivity task mastery. Identity/equivalence conservation task distinctions were most apparent for the without verbal justification response criterion. Implications for the general concept of the Piagetian concrete operations stage were discussed. (Author/BW)

An earlier study indicated that a subject's performance on simple mental tasks, such as tracing soluble and unsoluble geometric designs and proofreading, was not affected by background noise regardless of its intensity, unpredictability, or uncontrollability. But, since background noise did have a significant effect on postnoise task performance, it was concluded that the perception of having no control debilitated the quality of postnoise performance. Later studies indicated that the intensity of the noise can influence task performance, whether it is presented prior to or during the task. The main concern of this experiment was to determine whether cognitive factors would be more influential than the intensity variable in a reaction time experiment. It was found that at 105 decibel noise levels, intensity was the crucial variable, whereas at 70 decibel levels the predictability of the background noise was of primary importance. (BW)

Two visual monitoring tasks were used to further knowledge of the interactions between individual differences and task demands as determinants of performance and satisfaction. The subjects, 100 male university students, completed pre- and post-test batteries to assess general and specific abilities, personality variables, work orientation, motivation, and preferences for job structural attributes. Following the pre-testing, each subject performed the visual monitoring tasks--one complex and one simple. Both tasks involved monitoring slides for three 1-hour sessions for the presence of triangles or circles embedded within 60 irrelevant stimuli. The complex task (labeled high demands condition) differed from the simple task (labeled low demands condition) only with respect to the demand placed upon cognitive abilities. Results showed that both performance and satisfaction are related to individual differences in ability as well as selected personality and preference measures. The congruence between task demands and abilities was found to be highly significant in determining these relationships. It is suggested that one way to optimize performance and satisfaction involves designing the job so that the task demands match the ability levels of the individuals from which job selection is made. Implications are also made for use of prior and present experiment results for the selection of Navy personnel. Appendixes include the task instructions for the experiment and seven different tables of correlations. (SH)

An item analysis was performed on two rating scales, the Delta Survey of Nurses and the Delta Nursing Survey, developed for evaluating the preparation and job performance of nursing graduates. Resulting data supported the basic design of the instruments. The revised instruments consist of seven fewer items; two subtests were deleted, and a number of items were revised. The intended use of the instruments is to provide information relevant to the preservice and inservice training of nurses. The two instruments are included. (Author/BW)

This study was designed to examine the effects of auditory memory, visual memory, and vocabulary knowledge on intramodal and intermodal delayed matching-to-sample tasks. A secondary objective was to assess the value of task performance and trait measures in predicting reading achievement. A total of 52 first graders were randomly selected as participants and their cognitive traits were measured individually with the visual-sequential memory subtest from the ITPA, the digit span subtest from the WISC-R, the picture vocabulary from the Stanford-Binet, and the vocabulary subtest of the WISC-R. Each child then participated in four delayed matching-to-sample tasks: (1) matching a visual stimulus with a previously seen visual stimulus, (2) matching an auditory stimulus with a previously heard auditory stimulus; (3) matching an auditory stimulus with a previously seen visual stimulus and (4) matching a visual stimulus with a previously heard auditory stimulus. The stimuli were ten pronounceable nonsense trigrams and response choices were formed from systematic alterations of these trigrams. A few weeks after the trait measures and matching-task data were collected, all first graders took the SRA as part of the district testing program. The data were analyzed with a series of multiple regressions and the results are presented and discussed in detail. (JMB)

The experiment described was designed to evaluate the possible effects on students in a small seminar of an evaluation system in which students were freed from some of the pressures of the conventional grading system and allowed to participate in the grading process, and to determine whether such participation would affect the acquisition of course content and attitudes of students toward that course. One of three randomly selected seminar groups was chosen to be the experimental group in which the grading process was altered. Pretesting was done covering course content to establish relative equality among the groups. An analysis of variance revealed no statistically significant difference in the group that constructed its own tests and assigned its own points for seminar participation and the two control groups, which were graded by a more traditional method. Chi Square analyses were performed on the attitude data revealing no significant differences in the groups on attitudes toward unit quizzes, course grading, or small group seminars. Although statistical analysis indicated no significant differences in attitudes in the groups, the study revealed that students felt the experience was valuable in learning to compose valid test questions, that it freed them from memorizing irrelevant details, released them from tension, and allowed a more receptive mindset for hearing and listening as well as allowing for increased teacher-student communication, rapport, and appreciation. (Author/JMF)

Piaget, in describing the sequence of classificatory development, describes class inclusion as composed of two processes; hierarchical classification and post-whole comparisons. In the experiment reported here, elementary school children, trained in the concept of sets in first grade mathematics were given a task where they were required to assess a relationship between majority subclass and its superordinate class. Second and third graders were significantly more capable than were first graders, but no sex differences were indicated. Performance on the relational assessment task, (Hierarchical classification of subsets and superordinate sets) was better than performance on the traditional task where subjects compared subordinate and superordinate sets. (KS)

A change commonly found in older persons is a general tendency for responses to external stimuli to be slowed. The document includes a review of theoretical approaches to the explanation of slowing on cognitive tasks that occur with age, and reviews the methodology of a two-part experimental study of 45 subjects. The study reports a letter-matching reaction time task to investigate the relative contributions of attentional factors, pathway effects, and motivational factors to the overall slowing seen with age. Older subjects (mean age 63.5) are found to be more accurate than younger subjects (mean age 20.0) who demonstrate greater speed but more errors. Feedback is shown to affect performance on the part of younger subjects who report pacing themselves. Statistical treatment of the data by cost benefit analysis indicates no significant difference in the time course of costs and benefits between younger and older subjects. (Author/SBP)

This booklet is one of five related publications that delineate the program developed by the District of Columbia Public Schools for fulfilling the district's educational mission. The heart of this effort is the design and implementation of a districtwide competency-based curriculum for the prekindergarten level through grade 12, plus the development of attendant organizational structures and planning and evaluation strategies. This particular volume focuses on the curriculum design and presents the sequence of behavior tasks that students are expected to perform from the prekindergarten level through grade 12. It also identifies the various skills students need in order to perform these desired tasks. Most of the booklet outlines the general educational objectives for different curricular areas and lists specific performance tasks for students at each instructional level. (JG)

The efficacy of gating in the processing of simple, multidimensional stimuli was investigated. In Experiment 1, a continuous classification task was used, with subjects sorting cards according to binary dimensions of line orientation and location. Results suggested that orientation and location are integral dimensions, facilitation occurring with correlated dimensional combinations and interference with orthogonal combinations. In Experiment 2, discrete reaction time (RT) trials were given, requiring classification of tachistoscopically presented stimuli with large Response-Stimulus intervals (l3 sec). Interference, but not facilitation was found. Analysis of sequential effects revealed no support for the hypothesis that interference is due to the greater frequency of stimulus change in orthogonal conditions. It is suggested that long RSIs induce a set to process stimuli beyond psychological similarity and to analyze the dimensional structure of integral dimensions. Such dimensional analysis would eliminate facilitation effects, and interference might be due to response competition. (Author)

This paper presents a theory of human information processing. Information processing refers to the perception, encoding, recoding, storage, retrieval and manipulation of information by the brain. This theoretical model takes a developmental perspective in explaining human performance on tasks that require thinking, reasoning and remembering. Answered is the question of how information is processed by adults and by children of different ages. The main focus of this paper is upon those features of the theory which attempt to answer the questions of how and why do the differences between children and adults disappear with development. (SJL)

The goal of the project was to validate, refine, and develop plans for implementation of a performance-based challenge test in the cognitive and psychomotor aspects of basic clothing construction skills that could be utilized for grades 7-14. An advisory board and a jury panel representing the three instructional levels provided assistance in developing and validating the instrument. A clothing construction performance instrument was developed for each of two learning levels according to a matrix model. Following testing with 418 students in eight schools, the data obtained was subjected to statistical analysis. It was concluded that the test was feasible. The results are presented in narrative and tabular form. Recommendations are presented for both curriculum changes and test improvement. Appendixes (121 pages) include project correspondence, forms, the matrix model, grading criteria for psychomotor skills, and the 65-page instrument developed. The basic areas covered by the test are fashion and fitting, fiber and fabric, sewing equipment, clothing construction, and clothing care. The format is multiple choice for the written part. Performance tasks are to be completed in the areas of clothing construction and sewing equipment. (Author/RG)

REXALL is a flexible program within the CODAP (Comprehensive Occupational Data Analysis Programs) system designed primarily for analyzing judges' task-factor ratings, and may be used for identifying divergent raters. Divergent raters are those whose ratings are significantly different from the other raters' ratings. They may be the noncooperative raters who simply generate an arbitrary pattern of responses rather than try to follow the instructions, or they may invert the rating scale, or they may actually perceive the tasks differently. This report uses data from an actual study to show how REXALL is used to detect divergent raters, and to decide whether or not to delete them from the study since they may invalidate task means computed from ratings. It then uses the raw data from the study to verify the validity of the decisions made on the basis of the REXALL output. (Editor/WL)

This study sought to compare the relative values of the structured and unstructured approaches to the work experience portion of cooperative education programs with the additional objective of preparing guidelines for developing the structure of a work experience. A total of 32 students, 16 experimental and 16 control, from four Texas Community Colleges participated in the study. Four occupations, for which the National Occupational Competency Testing Institute (NOCTI) had prepared examinations, were selected. Competencies were identified for each occupation and the work experience was structured, based primarily on the identified competencies. All students were administered the appropriate NOCTI test as a pretest and assigned to training stations, where control students participated in a traditional unstructured work experience and experimental students participated in a work experience structured around the occupational competencies. At the end of four months all students were administered the NOCTI examination as a posttest. The conclusion showed that a more structured approach is more effective in teaching occupational competencies since students receive occupational knowledge at a higher, more consistent level. Lists of preliminary competencies are appended for air conditioning and refrigeration, printing trades, drafting, and auto mechanics. (Author/NJ)

The primary purpose of the present research was to explore the relationship of ability and intrinsic motivation in the prediction of job performance. Intrinsic motivation was traced to two primary determinants. One, an organizational factor, is the extent to which an employee's job is "enriched," or incorporates challenging elements such as autonomy and variety. A second determinant is an individual difference factor--the extent to which the individual desires to achieve and grow. Data were collected from 353 clerical employees in a large, metropolitan bank. Ability was measured by a pre-employment clerical aptitude test; information about job characteristics, individual growth needs, growth satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation was obtained by an employee questionnaire; and job performance was measured by supervisors' evaluations. The hypotheses were tested by hierarchical moderated multiple regression. Ability and intrinsic motivation combined in an additive way but not in an interactive way in predicting job performance. (Author/BW)

A sample of 82 engineers and 82 supervisors rated the importance of 10 job performance criteria in relation to the successful performance of the engineer's job. Supervisors also rated the engineer's performance on each of the 10 specific criteria and two global measures. The ratings were intercorrelated and factor analyzed; the extracted factors were rotated using Kaiser's varimax method. The importance ratings by supervisors were found to be highly similar to the importance ratings by engineers, with three factors emerging from the ratings by each group: (1) administrative skill, (2) technical competence, and (3) design skill. The factor analysis of the performance ratings by supervisors revealed two factors: (1) interpersonal relations ability and (2) technical ability. It appears that supervisors appraise performance by criteria similar to those they perceive as being critical to the type of work performed by engineers. (Author)

This pilot research project analyzes the role related classroom instruction plays in training journeymen in three Boston area trades-machinist, electrician, and operating engineer. Information was gathered from apprentices, journeymen, apprentice coordinators, and others by means of personal interviews and/or mail questionnaires. The data were used to estimate the impact of related instruction on individual job performance. The principal hypothesis was that related instruction has multiple roles, varying by trade and the particular objectives of different sponsors. It was possible to identify the independent effect of related instruction on job performance. In all three crafts the primary objective of related instruction was to equip apprentices with the technical knowledge and manipulative skills to become versatile all round journeymen. Only in the electrical trade did related instruction seem to offer a significant explanation of the variation in individual performance. It was almost impossible to coordinate related instruction with on-the-job training in construction. In the machinist trade, the degree of coordination varied from firm to firm. (Author/SA)