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In May 2024, the scientific community observed intense solar eruptions that resulted in a great geomagnetic storm and auroral extension, highlighting the need to document and quantify these events. This study mainly focuses on their quantification. The source active region (AR 13664) evolved from 113 to 2761 millionths of the solar hemisphere between 4 May and 14 May. AR 13664's magnetic free energy surpassed 10^33 erg on 7 May, triggering 12 X-class flares on 8 -- 15 May. Multiple interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) were produced from this AR, accelerating solar energetic particles toward Earth. According to satellite and interplanetary scintillation data, at least 4 ICMEs erupted from 13664 eventually overcoming each other and combining. The shock arrival at 17:05 UT on 10 May significantly compressed the magnetosphere down to ~ 5.04 RE, and triggered a deep Forbush Decrease. GOES satellite data and ground-based neutron monitors confirmed a ground-level enhancement from 2 UT to 10 UT on 11 May 2024. The ICMEs induced exceptional geomagnetic storms, peaking at a Dst index of -412 nT at 2 UT on 11 May, marking the sixth-largest storm since 1957. The AE and AL indices showed great auroral extensions that located the AE/AL stations into the polar cap. We gathered auroral records at that time and reconstructed the equatorward boundary of the visual auroral oval to 29.8{\deg} invariant latitude. We compared naked-eye and camera auroral visibility, providing critical caveats on their difference. We also confirmed global enhancements of storm-enhanced density of the ionosphere., Comment: 65 pages, 19 figures, and 2 tables. Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal

Auroral records found in historical archives and cosmogenic isotopes found in natural archives have served as sound proxies of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar energetic particles (SEPs), respectively, for dates prior to the onset of telescopic sunspot observations in 1610. These space weather events constitute a significant threat to a modern civilization, because of its increasing dependency on an electronic infrastructure. Recent studies have identified multiple extreme space weather events derived from solar energetic particles (SEPs) in natural archives, such as the event in 660 BCE. While the level of solar activity around 660 BCE is of great interest, this had not been within the coverage of the hitherto-known datable auroral records in historical documents that extend back to the 6th century BCE. Therefore, we have examined Assyrian astrological reports in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, identified three observational reports of candidate aurorae, and dated these reports to approximately 680 BCE -- 650 BCE. The Assyrian cuneiform tablets let us extend the history of auroral records and solar activity by a century. These cuneiform reports are considered to be the earliest datable records of candidate aurorae and they support the concept of enhanced solar activity suggested by the cosmogenic isotopes from natural archives., Comment: Main text 8 pages, references 4 pages, 3 figures, Appendices 6 pages, accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letters

Single-year spikes in radiocarbon production are caused by intense bursts of radiation from space. Supernovae emit both high-energy particle and electromagnetic radiation, but it is the latter that is most likely to strike the atmosphere all at once and cause a surge in 14C production. In the 1990s, it was claimed that the supernova in 1006 CE produced exactly this effect. With the 14C spikes in the years 775 and 994 CE now attributed to extreme solar events, attention has returned to the question of whether historical supernovae are indeed detectable using annual 14C measurements. Here, we combine new and existing measurements over six documented and putative supernovae, and conclude that no such astrophysical event has yet left a distinct imprint on the past atmospheric 14C record., Comment: 10 Pages; Radiocarbon, accepted