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This article positions braille as a writing system worthy of study in its own right and on its own terms. We begin with a discussion of the role of braille in the lives of those who read and write it and a call for more attention to braille in the reading sciences. We then give an overview of the history and development of braille, focusing on its formal characteristics as a writing system, in order to acquaint sighted print readers with the basics of braille and to spark further interest among reading researchers. We then explore how print-centric assumptions and sight-centric motivations have potentially negative consequences, not only for braille users but also for the types of questions researchers think to pursue. We conclude with recommendations for conducting responsible and informed research about braille. We affirm that blindness is most equitably understood as but one of the many diverse ways humans experience the world. Researching braille literacy from an equity and diversity perspective provides positive, fruitful insights into perception and cognition, contributes to the typologically oriented work on the world's writing systems, and contributes to equity by centering the perspectives and literacy of the people who read and write braille. [This is the online first version of an article published in "Applied Psycholinguistics."]

In the present chapter, we review the evidence for several principles that are especially promising for improving mathematics instruction. Using the classification scheme proposed by Koedinger et al. (2013), we begin with principles that focus on improving memory and fluency: scaffolding, distributed practice, and feedback. We then move to worked examples, interleaved practice, and abstract and concrete representations, which primarily promote induction and refinement. Finally, we review principles that are geared towards improving sense making and understanding: Error reflection and analogical comparison. In each section, we first describe the principle and the instructional implications. We then evaluate the evidence for the effectiveness of the principle for promoting mathematics learning, first from laboratory studies and then from classroom studies. Finally, we summarize what is and is not known about how these principles relate to mathematics learning, and identify gaps to be addressed in further translational research. The chapter concludes with an overall evaluation of the current state of evidence regarding how the use of these cognitive principles can influence mathematics instruction, both for simple and for more complex skills and concepts; we also suggest research priorities necessary to maximize the potential impact of cognitive science for mathematics instruction. [This chapter was published in D. C. Geary (Ed.), D. B. Berch (Ed.), R. Ochsendorf (Ed.), K. M. Koepke (Ed.), "Acquisition of Complex Arithmetic Skills and Higher-Order Mathematics Concepts, Volume III" (p297-325). New York, NY: Elvesier.]

National and international assessments of reading, science and math indicate that students and adults in the United States lag behind citizens of other developed nations. While there are many reasons for this lag, recent advances in cognitive science and technology have uncovered promising ways to intervene and help struggling students. This chapter will review recent developments from the cognitive literature that can potentially shed light on solutions for improving students' study skills, as well as their general reading comprehension. We draw upon the available literature from reading strategy research and recent advances in assessment. Collectively, while this research indicates that the construct of reading is evolving, modern reading interventions are positioned to help prepare students for 21st Century literacy activities. [This manuscript is an early draft of a paper published in: R. Schiff and R. M. Joshi (Eds). "Interventions in Learning Disabilities: Literacy Studies," 13, (pp. 139-158). Switzerland: Springer International.]

Findings from the fields of cognitive science and cognitive development propose a variety of evidence-based principles for improving learning. One such recommendation is that instead of having students practice solving long strings of problems on their own after a lesson, worked-out examples of problem solutions should be incorporated into practice sessions in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) classrooms. Research in scientific laboratories and real-world classrooms has also identified a number of methods for utilizing worked examples in lessons, including fading the examples, prompting self-explanation of the examples, including incorrect examples, and providing opportunities for students to compare multiple examples. Each of these methods has been shown to lend itself well to particular types of learning goals. Implications for education policy are discussed, including rethinking the ways in which STEM textbooks are constructed, finding ways to support educators in recognizing and implementing effective cognitive science-based pedagogical techniques, and changing the climate in classrooms to include the perception of errors as a functional part of the learning process. [This article was published in "Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences," v2 n1 p24-32 Oct 2015.]

Among education researchers, there is a growing consensus that college and career readiness depends on not just academic knowledge and skills but on a wide range of social and developmental competencies, as well--such as the ability to monitor one's own learning, persist at challenging tasks, solve complex problems, set realistic goals, and communicate effectively in many kinds of settings. Yet, most U.S. schools continue to use standardized achievement tests, focusing exclusively on reading and math, as their primary means of gauging student progress. In this paper--the first in Students at the Center's new Deeper Learning Research Series--David T. Conley, well-known for his influential research on college readiness, argues that the time is ripe for a major shift in educational assessment. State and federal policymakers should reconsider their overreliance on standardized tests, he argues, and they should embrace the use of multiple measures that, in combination, provide much deeper and more useful information about students' readiness to succeed after high school.

Raising academic standards has been part of the education policy discourse for decades. As early as the 1990s, states and school districts attempted to raise student achievement by developing higher standards and measuring student progress according to more rigorous benchmarks. However, the caliber of the standards--and their assessments--varied greatly from state to state. For example, Massachusetts adopted some of the highest standards and most challenging exams in the country and has some of the highest-achieving students in the nation. On the other hand, Mississippi set a low bar, and the state's students are often ill prepared for college and careers. Recognizing that the previous patchwork system did not work, a group of bipartisan governors and state superintendents came together to develop a shared set of more rigorous, internationally benchmarked academic standards in English language arts and mathematics called the Common Core State Standards. Some worry that the standards have not been proven to improve student learning, as they were entirely new as of 2010. However, the Common Core is grounded in the latest cognitive science regarding how students learn. A review of the research base for the standards found that the Common Core promotes greater student learning in the following key ways: (1) Scaffolding student learning to provide a strong knowledge base on which new ideas and concepts are stacked; (2) Holding all students to high expectations, which promotes greater student achievement and growth; (3) Incorporating the latest research on how students learn to read to help close the literacy gap; (4) Employing both the traditional method of teaching math and conceptual strategies to provide students with a strong understanding of math and the skills to apply it; (5) Increasing the opportunities for students to learn from their peers and collaborate on assignments, which improves learning and interpersonal skills; and (6) Promoting problem- and project-based learning, which leads to a deeper understanding of concepts. If teachers and students are supported with high-quality curricula and instructional materials, a properly implemented Common Core will help prepare students to be complex problem solvers, as well as critical thinkers and readers. These six research-based practices get to the heart of how the Common Core will make that goal a reality for all students.

Policymakers and educators alike increasing focus on faculty adoption of interactive teaching techniques as a way to improve undergraduate education. Yet, little empirical research exists that examines the processes whereby faculty make decisions about curriculum design and classroom teaching in real-world situations. In this study, I use the idea of the "problem space" from cognitive science to foreground the importance of actor-situation dynamics in shaping instructional decision making. Using data from a freelisting exercise and retrospective recall interviews, I describe the perceived affordances, planning strategies, and both the planned and enacted curricular artifacts for a group of 58 STEM faculty. Then, to examine these processes as they unfold in practice, I examine the cases of two physics instructors as they planned and taught specific classes. Results indicate the primacy of fixed affordances such as time, course content, and class size, and the influence of time constraints that lead to the dominant planning strategy of recycling and fine-tuning old lecture notes and PowerPoint slides. The paper also delves into the importance of these artifacts as cultural tools that mediate practice. The paper contributes a new approach to the study of instructional decision making while also providing actionable insights to improve practice. In particular, I recommend instituting departmental policies that require faculty to engage in brief, post-class and post-course reflection that results in minor updates to their curricular artifacts and will not require a significant time commitment.

This book highlights new scientific research about how people learn, including interdisciplinary perspectives from neuroscience, the social, cognitive and behavioural sciences, education, computer and information sciences, artificial intelligence/machine learning, and engineering. These new developments offer fascinating new perspectives, based on technological advances, which enable a re-examination of longstanding problems in learning, raise new questions, and offer new approaches to the study of learning. This report seeks to catalyse discussions on the implications of these research findings for education practice and policy, and in turn, on how knowledge and experience from real-world education practice and policy could challenge and inform research agendas and theory building.

This chapter considers psychological and neuroscience research on how people understand the integers, and how educators can foster this understanding. The core proposal is that new, abstract mathematical concepts are built upon known, concrete mathematical concepts. For the integers, the relevant foundation is the natural numbers, which are understood by reference to a mental number line (MNL). The integers go beyond the natural numbers in obeying the additive inverse law: for any integer x, there is an integer -x such that x + (-x) = 0. We propose that practicing applying this law, such as when students learn that the same quantity can be added or subtracted from both sides of an equation, transforms the MNL. In particular, perceptual mechanisms for processing visual symmetry are recruited to represent the numerical symmetry between the integers x and -x. This chapter reviews psychological and neuroscience evidence for the proposed learning progression. It also reviews instructional studies showing that the hypothesized transformation can be accelerated by novel activities that engage symmetry processing compared to conventional activities around number lines and cancellation. Ultimately, these instructional insights can guide future psychological and neuroscience studies of how people understand the integers in arithmetic and algebraic contexts. [For the complete volume, "Constructing Number: Merging Perspectives from Psychology and Mathematics Education. Research in Mathematics Education," see ED616587.]

There are research-based principles and practices from the learning and cognitive sciences that can be applied to all content areas in middle grades education to improve student outcomes. Even teachers of courses like Physical Education can consider these strategies for assisting students in remembering rules of sports, different sports strategies, etc. More importantly, these principles and practices can provide study skills for students to prepare them for the increased rigor of high school coursework, where they may experience final exams for the first time. Therefore, the more these principles and practices can become adopted and implemented school-wide, the more proficient students will become in their use. This will enable middle grade students to have the skills they need not only for high school success, but also for success in postsecondary education and/or future careers. This report provides few questions school leaders might ask while providing instructional leadership, observing classrooms, and working with teachers, and how Dr. Graesser would respond based on his knowledge of research in the learning and cognitive sciences.

This paper deals with two types of logical problems--recognition problems and reverse engineering problems, and with the interrelations between these types of problems. The recognition problems are modeled in the form of a visual representation of various objects in a common pattern, with a composition of represented objects in the pattern. Solving the recognition problem may therefore be understood as recognizing a visually-represented Boolean concept, with further formulation of the concept. The recognition problems can be perceived as a parallel process, so the recognition problems are considered a parallel type. Alternatively, solving a reverse engineering problem means reconstructing a Boolean function/concept implemented within a given "black box." Since such a reconstruction is typically performed sequentially, step by step, this type of problem can be considered a sequential type. We study the above two types of problems for the same set of Boolean concepts and compare the corresponding solutions obtained by a group of students. The paper presents results of experiments that study how the complexity of Boolean concepts affects the students' success in solving parallel and the sequential type problems respectively. (Contains 2 figures and 2 tables.) [For the complete proceedings, "Proceedings of the International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA) (Madrid, Spain, October 19-21, 2012)," see ED542606.]

This paper discusses brain-based learning and its relation to classroom instruction. A rapidly growing quantity of research currently exists regarding how the brain perceives, processes, and ultimately learns new information. In order to maximize their teaching efficacy, educators should have a basic understanding of key memory functions in the brain, and how these functions relate to student learning. In this paper, the author surveys current literature to identify foundational instructional strategies that are supported by brain-based research. A Microsoft PowerPoint[R] presentation is included that is intended for use at an in-service training with the goal of providing participants with (1) an overview of research findings with respect to the information processing and memory functions of the brain, and (2) overarching areas of instructional strategies that are supported by current research. The presentation is designed for use by educators and others involved in direct instruction in both primary and secondary education. Two appendixes are included: (1) Pre-Presentation Survey; and (2) Post-Presentation Survey.

A widely recognized concern in elementary school mathematics education is that teachers' understanding of the mathematical curricular content generally appears quite fragmented, sparsely connected, and procedurally oriented. This pilot study applies methods of educational neuroscience to investigate and improve preservice teachers' learning and understanding of whole number and rational number division and connections between the two using a Computer Enhanced Mathematics Learning Environment (CEMLE) called DivFact that enables learners to explore the conceptual and procedural connections between whole number and rational number division. The goal in this research is to investigate aspects of preservice teachers' use of DivFact from different theoretical perspectives pertaining to computer-enhanced graphical and symbolic representations of whole number and rational number division. Specific objectives include determining what kinds of learning styles are manifest through the use of DivFact; how effective is DivFact in helping learners to understand division; and in what ways can the design of this CEMLE be improved. An important counterpart of this research is developing and applying methods of educational neuroscience toward this end. (Contains 3 figures.)

Geometry is required for many secondary school students, and is often learned, taught, and assessed more in a heuristic image-based manner, than as a formal axiomatic deductive system. Students are required to prove general theorems, but diagrams are usually used. It follows that understanding how students engage in perceiving and reasoning about such diagrams can provide educators with greater insights into learning, instruction, and assessment of these matters. Simply put, the end in view of this research program should provide as much insight as possible into two fundamental questions for any given learner considering a geometrical diagram. Firstly, what aspects of that diagram are being perceived from one moment to the next, and, secondly, in what manners are those aspects of the diagram being considered. It assumed here that such a learner is having their brain waves monitored by an electroencephalograph and that the geometrical diagram is being presented on an eye-tracking monitor, recording their point of gaze. Accordingly, in this study we seek to identify brain and body activities that correlate in valid and reliable manners, and with a high degree of statistical significance, with different aspects of geometrical image-based perception and reasoning. In so doing, we seek a better understanding of cognitive processes associated with geometrical image-based learning, instruction, and assessment in mathematics education, and to contribute to extending multidisciplinary boundaries of educational research. (Contains 8 figures and 1 table.)

From a contemporary perspective on cognition, the between-persons variables in trait-based arguments in educational assessment are absurd over-simplifications. Yet, for a wide range of applications, they work. Rather than seeing such variables as independently-existing characteristics of people, we can view them as summaries of patterns in situated behaviors that could be understood at the finer grainsize of sociocognitive analyses. When done well, inference through coarser educational and psychological measurement models suits decisions and actions routinely encountered in school and work, yet is consistent with what we are learning about how people learn, act, and interact. An essential element of test validity is whether, in a given application, using a given model provides a sound basis for organizing observations and guiding actions in the situations for which it is intended. This presentation discusses the use of educational measurement models such as those of item response theory and cognitive diagnosis from the perspective of model-based reasoning, with a focus on validity. (Contains 5 figures, 1 table and 2 footnotes.) [This work was partially supported by the Educational Research and Development Centers Program, PR/Award Number R305A050004.]

In an age of unprecedented scientific achievement, I argue that the neurosciences are poised to transform our perceptions about life on earth, and that collaboration is needed to exploit a vast body of knowledge for humanity's benefit. The scientific method distinguishes science from the humanities and religion. It has evolved into a professional, specialized culture with a common language that has synthesized technological forces into an incomparable era in terms of power and potential to address persistent problems of life on earth. When Willis of Oxford initiated modern experimentation, ecclesial authorities held intellectuals accountable to traditional canons of belief. In our secularized age, science has ascended to dominance with its contributions to progress in virtually every field. I will develop this transition in three parts. First, modern experimentation on the brain emerged with Thomas Willis in the 17th Century. A conscientious Anglican, he postulated a "corporeal soul," so that he could pursue cranial research. He belonged to a gifted circle of scientifically minded scholars, the "Virtuosi," who assisted him with his "Cerebri anatome." He coined a number of neurological terms, moved research from the traditional humoral theory to a structural emphasis, and has been remembered for the arterial structure at the base of the brain, the "Circle of Willis." Second, the scientific method is briefly described as a foundation for understanding its development in neuroscience. Scientists now are necessarily professionals, who are credentialed and are engaged in scientific specialties. This section of the paper is sometimes referred to as the "heroic period" for its noteworthy pioneers. Their accomplishments paved the way for unprecedented growth in the neurosciences at the end of the 20th Century. Two illustrations demonstrate a preoccupation with brain (neuron doctrine) and mind (development of psychology) throughout the maturation stage. The neuron doctrine was formulated by creative use of cellular stains and improved microscopy: Ramon y Cajal, Golgi, Nissl, Weigert, Waldeyer, and Sherrington. Early options for the subject of psychology as science were consciousness (Wundt, James) and unconsciousness (Freud, Jung). In their wake were Gestalt (Wertheimer, Koffke, Kohler), behaviorism (Watson, Skinner), and mechanical intelligence. In the mid-20th century psychologists questioned a partitive approach to the mind and non-empirical theories. Governmental support for scientific research led to technology that dramatically expanded the neurosciences. The issues of the mind and neurophysiology have synthesized into the cognitive neurosciences, which are concerned with the biological substrates of mental processes and their behavioral manifestations. Third, how does the world marshal neuroscientific and genetic breakthroughs to serve its urgent problems? The collaborations of the past point to the need for an institutional hub to coordinate the resources at our disposal. The Broad Institute was founded in 2004 to transform medicine through molecular knowledge. Its goals are holistic, so it adds a bodily dimension to the traditional mind/brain focuses of neuroscience. This collaborative model is very promising for the kinds of challenges that we face today. The paper has presented some information to show us that the scientific method has created distinctive academic disciplines with a common language. Accordingly, a neuroscientist is a professional practitioner in a specialty that seeks to advance our understanding of mind/brain/body connections through research, medicine, and the affiliations that sponsor collaboration in the field. (Contains 76 footnotes.)

This paper discusses research and thinking on the importance of interpersonal and intrapersonal effectiveness for teachers, school leaders and school improvement, and explores implications of the use of NLP in relation to personalisation and the children's agenda. It outlines initial research carried out as part of the Fast Track Teaching programme (the UK government accelerated leadership development programme) and on the London Leadership Strategy and makes suggestions for further research. Two appendices are included: (1) Content analysis of suggestions for use of NLP in teaching and school leadership (n. 380 teachers); and (2) Core content knowledge covered in the INLPTA Diploma Level training.

Advances in cognitive research increase the need for assessment that can address the processes and the strategies by which persons solve problems. Several psychometric models have been introduced to handle claims cast in information-processing terms, explicitly modeling performance in terms of theory-based predictions of performance. Cognitively based item response theory IRT [item response theory] models incorporate features of items that influence persons' responses, and relate these features to response probabilities. A number of these models are discussed in terms of the interplay between the formal characteristics of the probability models and the substantive narratives they support. Examples include the Linear Logistic Test Model, mixtures of IRT models, and multivariate structured IRT models. (Contains 1 table and 7 figures.)

C. June Maker, Professor at the University of Arizona, has developed a unique performance-based assessment in which children are observed by teams of teachers, counselors, paraprofessionals, administrators, specialists in education of the gifted and bilingual education, and local community members. The assessment, designed initially to increase the participation of students from diverse groups in programs for the gifted, was later expanded to include the identification of the strengths of all children so their positive traits could be recognized and developed. This assessment and the corresponding model for designing appropriate curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of diverse groups are consistent with research in cognitive science and an emerging paradigm in the field of education of the gifted. These approaches are based on the theories and research of Stephen Ceci, Howard Gardner, and Robert Sternberg and represent Maker's synthesis during 16 years of research and development through the Discovering Intellectual Strengths and Capabilities (DISCOVER) Projects. Maker is extending this work by integrating it with the work of educators in Europe and Asia, and has developed a new classification of human abilities based on her research. In this monograph, an Introduction provides readers with a context for the framework Maker has developed. She cites research from cognitive science, psychology, cultural anthropology, education of the gifted, and bilingual education--and combines this with personal experiences in teaching and studying in the field--to support ideas for changes needed to improve programs for gifted students from culturally, linguistically, economically, and geographically diverse backgrounds. In the second section, "Setting the Stage," in a personal way, she describes her own thinking and research process as the framework evolved and was tested. The assessment and curriculum models are described briefly in this section and results of research on their use and effectiveness are presented in a readable style. Following the "Setting the Stage" section is a descriptive account of the assessment, along with many ways the curriculum principles of DISCOVER can be implemented in general classrooms or classrooms for gifted students. This is the "Practical Applications" section, and in it she continues with real examples by presenting six case studies of schools, school districts, a state, and two other countries using the models. She concludes the practical applications section by presenting the new framework developed with colleagues in Europe and Asia. The "Conclusion" is a synthesis of ideas; and here Maker presents specific, clear recommendations for policy-makers, coordinators, principals, and teachers interested in using her ideas and research. Additional resources are listed in this section, and practical materials to assist various audiences and practitioners are included in the Appendices: an annotated bibliography of publications about DISCOVER (Appendix A), correlations between DISCOVER activities at different grade levels (Appendix B), an interview format to use with teachers instead of written forms for rating student characteristics and making referrals (Appendix C), suggested activities for teachers to use to provide a setting for observing children's problem solving in different ability areas (Appendix D), checklists of observable characteristics to use with these activities (Appendix E), and three teaching units based on the DISCOVER Curriculum principles (Appendices F, G, and H). Eight appendixes are included: (1) Annotated Bibliography of Publications About DISCOVER ; (2) Correlations Between DISCOVER Activities at Different Grade Levels; (3) Interview Guide for Reporting Student Characteristics and Making Referrals; (4) Suggested Activities for Observing Children's Problem Solving in Different Ability Areas; (5) Checklists of Observable General Problem Solving Characteristics to Supplement Checklists of Specific Characteristics Included in Appendix D to Observe the Activities Suggested in Appendix D; (6) Teaching Unit for Early Elementary Students Based on the DISCOVER Curriculum Model; (7) Teaching Unit for Middle School Students Based on the DISCOVER Curriculum Model; and(8) Teaching Unit for High School Students Based on the DISCOVER Curriculum Model. (Contains 4 tables.)

SpringBoard is a comprehensive instructional program in English language arts and mathematics that reflects powerful, research-based understandings about how people learn. This report presents a model of learning based on cognitive science with particular attention to the role of memory and language. The instructional framework of strategic learning that follows from this model provides the basis for the SpringBoard program's incorporation of rigorous content and training in strategic activities and skills. Finally, the research base for the SpringBoard program is reviewed and summarized, first for the program overall and then for each set of strategies incorporated in the instructional design: reading, writing, oral proficiency, collaboration, and problem solving.

Consider that colorful photographs, eye-catching illustrations, and captivating images intended to make textbooks more appealing may actually distract students from the lesson at hand. Or that asking students to simply solve math problems might not be as effective as having them explain the steps of solutions that are already worked out--even some that are worked out incorrectly. This article presents an examination into the application of cognitive science to the curriculum design of middle school-level mathematics. It describes a proposed revision of a mathematics curriculum with particular attention to visual imagery, conceptual understanding promotion through new exercises and studies of old solved problems, and the use of targeted feedback testing. [This article was first published in WestEd's R&D Alert, Vol. 15, No.1, 2014.]

Research on memory functions and their applications is a vast field that has unfolded for decades; some important studies are sixty years old. However, the research has remained a well-kept secret of cognitive psychologists. Education faculties rarely teach memory specifics, so people working in education typically do not know about the above distinction. This document attempts to publicize essential research on the relationship between memory functions and skills development and to illustrate its educational and policy implications. Understanding memory functions is also important because the distinction between explicit and implicit memory seems to be responsible for significant and systematic memory biases that affect how people think about education. This document therefore also presents the problems and solution attempts made by donor agencies as well as research on cognitive biases of people. It then proceeds to illustrate essential memory functions that have applicability in education. The review includes "non-cognitive" skills, personality variables, complex skills, and gender and status issues. It also briefly covers the problems of lower-income vocational institutions and links them to cognitive research. It concludes with policy implications and prospects for future research. Examples of learning-related assumptions reported in various documents are appended. A bibliography is also included.

Traditional analytical philosophy of education assigns a peripheral place to physical education, partly because orthodox epistemology finds its cognitive claims implausible. An understandable but dubious response to this state of affairs is the attempt to relocate physical education within the academic curriculum, with its characteristic emphasis on theoretical knowledge and formal assessment. Dissatisfaction with this response suggests an analysis of physical activity in terms of practical knowledge or knowing how, but the results of this seem inconclusive. More recently, the development of neurocomputational and embodied-cognition approaches in cognitive science appears to offer alternative ways of understanding motor skill and physical activity, and thus of rescuing physical education from its marginal status. But these strategies are not unproblematic, particularly where questions of personal agency and motor control are concerned. Examination of these issues prompts a radical reconsideration of the traditional problem of physical education, and consequently of some familiar assumptions in the philosophy of education.