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Scaffolding is a contributing factor to the effectiveness of pragmatic instruction. Although there is a large body of research on the means of scaffolding in second language teaching, research on scaffolding in L2 pragmatic instruction, especially in online teaching, is still in its infancy. To bridge the gap, this study investigated the means of scaffolding (feedback, giving hints, instructing, explaining, modeling, and questioning) utilized by teachers to aid learners in producing pragmatically appropriate speech acts of request and refusal. The data from 18 hours of online pragmatic instruction to 21 intermediate EFL learners via the Skyroom platform showed that the most frequent means of scaffolding used by three teachers participating in this study were questioning and explaining. Employing questioning, teachers used display questions to guide learners toward the appropriate production of request and refusal. Moreover, explaining, as a means of scaffolding, helped learners establish connections between new pragmatic knowledge and their prior knowledge of the speech act. The other three means of scaffolding, including feedback, giving hints, and modeling, were characterized by almost the same rate of frequency. The least frequent means of scaffolding was found to be instructing. It can be concluded that teachers tend to use questioning as a means of scaffolding more frequently because pragmatic knowledge needs to be improved through interaction. The findings can help teacher educators heighten the teachers' knowledge of various means of scaffolding to enable them to employ different means of scaffolding instead of overusing questioning and explaining.

Growing human capacities in STEM remain the most practicable way to solving present and future challenges. Improved test score, opportunities to learn, resources and facilities have been recommended in the literature to build capacity and improve achievement for effective and qualitative delivery in STEM classrooms. We focus on the two primary stakeholders in teaching and learning in the university who are students and lecturers. This manuscript explores the causes of underachievement among undergraduates in STEM fields by employing a mixed methods for data collection and analysis among 150 undergraduates and 45 lecturers from six public universities using purposive and quota sampling. Three main research questions were raised on student, lecturer and institution base factors along with perceived hindrances to STEM learning and teaching. Three instruments; Students Factors for Underachievement (SFUA), Lecturers Factor for Underachievement (LFUA) and Lecturers Perceived Factors for Underachievement (LPFU) were employed for data collection through survey and interview. Among other findings, poor prior knowledge among learners, non-utilisation of instructional resources, inaccessibility to library and laboratory and it resources were principal hindrances of undergraduates, lecturers and institution-base factors. The study concluded that efforts and better commitment is required from stakeholders to alleviate the present inadequacies and recommend interventions to remediate areas of need.

Morphological awareness is the metalinguistic realization that words consist of meaningful roots and affixes that can be isolated and manipulated. Learners at different proficiency levels use various forms of background knowledge such as cultural knowledge, technical knowledge, religious knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, and contextual visuals. The purpose of this research was to see whether morphological awareness and background knowledge affected the fluency and accuracy of Turkish EFL learners. The participants consisted of 80 Turkish EFL students. At first, participants were homogenized to select samples and eliminate outliers, then a pretest was used to assess participants' writing fluency and accuracy prior to treatment. During the treatment phase, materials were presented to participants, and at the end, a posttest was used to assess the effect of treatment on participants' writing fluency and accuracy. According to the result of the data analysis, there was a significant difference in morphological awareness of EFL learners' writing performance in terms of accuracy from the pre- to posttests. Furthermore, the findings revealed a similar amount of progress in participants' writing fluency.

Objective: Our objective was to examine the perceptions regarding the teaching and learning of English of students in 16 undergraduate programs at a state public university in Mexico. Method: In our qualitative case study, participating students responded to queries about their experiences learning English at the university, as well as their educational aspirations upon completion of their university studies. Results: Despite their relevance to language immersion and competency, students struggle to combine prior experiences with current learning. Given Mexico's English education system and past national initiatives, most participants say they still speak basic English. It is also clear that the institution does not have a unified curriculum that permits students to take English lessons in their subject of study. Implication for Theory and/or Practice: It is necessary to articulate English initiatives from elementary to higher education and to monitor national initiatives to ensure continuity in the development of language learning. Global events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have affected education, and universities and their teachers must remain on the cutting edge of educational technologies and instructional methodologies and redouble efforts to enhance English teaching and learning.

Education on sustainability is a crucial goal that requires a transformative shift in teacher education to drive meaningful changes oriented to action. A cross-sectional study with an exploratory design investigated preservice science teachers' perceptions regarding teaching sustainable citizenship, specifically focusing on the climate crisis and earthquakes-tsunamis. The study was conducted in two Chilean universities with similar teacher preparation programs. The team designed a podcast series, which was used and evaluated by the 13 participants through action research. Three group discussions explored their perceptions of the resources, as well as the aims and challenges of teaching sustainable citizenship and the podcasts. We used Grounded Theory steps, including triangulation by the researchers to ensure reliability, to qualitatively analyse the data. The results reveal a constraint on teaching in areas where the participants lacked the necessary preparation and background knowledge as students and preservice teachers. The main challenges were related to interdisciplinarity, the social dimension of socio-scientific issues and context-responsive teaching methods. The perceived aims were the development of students' critical thinking, informed positioning, and encouraging active citizen participation. Preservice teachers found the podcast series to be a valuable new epistemic and pedagogical resource that can support their efforts to teach sustainable citizenship and implement pedagogical strategies. The autonomous usage of the device triggered reflection processes, particularly regarding the human rights perspective, which unveiled the socio-political dimensions inherent in science education. It promoted personal re-positioning as active citizens and educators and empowered them to seek out and pursue the changes needed to reshape future classrooms. We discuss these findings in the context of teacher preparation and the use of educational technology in teacher education.

STEM education, which includes science, technology, engineering and mathematics, has been expanding for the past two decades. This study aimed to map new trends and the possibility of implementing digital game-based learning (DGBL) in STEM education. For this purpose, a systematic literature review was conducted. The resulting sample was further selected according to PRISMA guidelines, with screening and eligibility processes conducted based on the inclusion criteria defined concerning the research objective. This review consisted of twenty-eight studies. The findings revealed a growing interest in DGBL in STEM education from 2018 to 2023. Furthermore, most studies have focused on the K-12 education system and universities. According to the review, educational games for digital learning and simulation technology are the most promising tools used in research. The analysis is launched by studying the effects that influence the increase of student motivation in DGBL teaching STEM education. The findings support the conclusion that prior experience in gaming has a positive impact on increasing students' motivation to learn in DGBL STEM teaching. In addition, students' previous knowledge of a STEM subject increases engagement and motivation. Implementing educational computer games, therefore, showed a great interest in students in STEM education.

The perceptions of students who study environmental science related to pollution are certainly different because they are influenced by various circumstances. These circumstances, among others, depend on what they observe around them and their prior knowledge. This study aimed to determine the concept of pollution according to the cognitive structure of prospective biology teachers. The research was designed as a case study and the selected participants were 29 first-year biology education students who took environmental science courses. Data were collected by giving word association tests, open-ended questions, and drawings. The results showed that students' thinking process and prior knowledge influenced their ability to express ideas or answers. Cognitive perceptions of prospective biology teachers from the word association test brought up 30 words related to the pollution which were grouped into four categories, namely types of pollution, causes of pollution, consequences of pollution, and solutions to overcome pollution. Cognitive perceptions of prospective teachers based on open-ended questions, most of them wrote the definition of pollution as stated in the environmental management law, and cognitive perceptions of prospective teachers outlined in the form of drawing related to efforts to overcome pollution are throwing garbage in its place, doing reforestation, and go green action. [Note: The publication year (2023) shown in the citation on the PDF is incorrect. The correct publication year is 2024.]

A cohort of pre-service mathematics students was exposed to a teaching strategy based on retrieval practice and test-potentiated learning. The aim of the study was to determine how high and low prior topic knowledge study participants compare in terms of their procedural fluency and conceptual understanding after exposure to the teaching strategy. A pre-test and post-test repeated measures design was employed in the study to compare within groups. A revised taxonomy table based on Bloom's taxonomy was utilised to categorise test items. Findings indicate significant differences between pre-test and post-test scores within groups. Results from the independent samples t-test show a significant difference between the two groups. Outcomes confirm that the benefits of retrieval practice are greatest for unfamiliar content. Findings indicate that for low prior topic knowledge students, procedural fluency is enhanced and retained more than conceptual understanding whereas for the high prior topic knowledge students it was the reverse. The strategy was not as effective for improving conceptual understanding.

Background: Although the reading of science texts has been reported for high school learners, there is not much research on how younger learners engage with expository texts and how they develop academic language skills. In the instance of this study, the topic came from the curriculum content about animal reproduction. Aim: The study from which this article emanated aimed to explore how a sample of learners engaged with a short text, which required cohesive reading and some background knowledge and vocabulary. Setting: This study was conducted in a suburban school where the learners use English as a second language. Methods: A sample (n = 25) was randomly selected from five Grade 4 classes. Their reading comprehension of a custom-designed test was assessed, along with their writing competence in their responses to content questions as well as their drawings. The data were analysed in a typical content analysis modality. Results: This study showed that the learners do not apply inferencing skills and do not read cohesively across sentences and paragraphs and that their vocabulary and prior knowledge of animal reproduction is limited. Conclusion: The urgent need for the development of academic language skills in the early grades is foregrounded in this article, arguing that it can be infused in subjects across the curriculum of the early grades. Contribution: The task can be used by teachers and by researchers who may wish to replicate the study.

Pedagogical training is considered an efficient tool to train university teachers to understand and foster active learning. In Finland, pedagogical training courses are organized periodically at universities, and university teachers participate voluntarily to improve pedagogical knowledge and skills for teaching in higher education settings. This study aims to examine the effects of short online pedagogical training courses on the development of university teachers' conceptions of active learning from two perspectives: the role of prior knowledge and engaging their students during lectures. The effects of the training were measured through self-reported questionnaires completed by teachers at a Finnish university before and after the pedagogical course (N = 108). The results showed an increase in participants' perceptions of the importance of prior knowledge in the learning process, and a decrease in the idea of learning as remembering. Additionally, the awareness of developing engaging lectures increased by the end of the courses. These outcomes indicate the benefits of short pedagogical courses for pedagogical development, especially for university teachers who have not had any prior training in pedagogy.

This study uses a logistic regression model to analyze survey data (n = 341) and predict factors influencing online course success for underserved and academically at-risk undergraduate students at a small, broad access, four-year, public Midwestern university. Three blocks of predictor variables, demographic (first generation, low income, minority status), educational (academic level, prior online experience, online vs. face-to-face major, transfer status, college cumulative GPA), and personal characteristics (self-regulation, Technological Efficacy), were used to explain student success in online courses. Low income, although initially significant, was not a significant predictor in the final model. College cumulative GPA remained a statistically significant predictor of online course success in every block of the regression analysis. Prior online experience and self-regulation were not significant predictors, although the overall model was significant. Controlling for all explanatory variables, college cumulative GPA and Technological Efficacy were found to be the most significant predictors of online course success in the f inal model. With increasing prevalence and popularity of online courses, it is crucial for universities catering to a larger proportion of underserved and academically at-risk students to identify the specific learner characteristics that lead to successful online course completion.

This research aims to investigate the scientific creativity of 9th grade students following the implementation of a project-based learning (PjBL) approach. The study involved a sample of 21 students from a high school in a Roi Et province during the first semester of the academic year 2023. Participants were randomly selected using classrooms as the sampling units. The research employed a pre-experimental design, specifically a one-group pretest-posttest design. The research tools included: 1. PjBL plans. 2. Assessment of scientific creativity. 3. Satisfaction questionnaire. Data analysis involved the use of means, standard deviations, and the dependent t-test statistic. It was discovered that students' scores on creative scientific thinking after the intervention were significantly higher than before, with statistical significance at the 0.05 level. Additionally, students expressed satisfaction after participating in the PjBL, with an average rating of 4.50, falling within the criteria for a high level of satisfaction.

The Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial intelligence technology that engages in dialogue with humans, capable of generating formulations in the form of micro-narratives that can be problematized as a learning tool in the virtual space. This research aims to understand how ChatGPT can be used in teacher training as a didactic tool to facilitate learning in the virtual space through micro-narratives. We conducted a qualitative study using an action research approach with Brazilian students from the Graduate Program at the State University of Ceará in Brazil. The research consisted of five phases: diagnosis, which involved a mixed questionnaire to assess prior knowledge about generating micro-narratives using ChatGPT; action planning, which involved developing a training plan; implementation of the action, which included practicing the use of ChatGPT to generate micro-narratives and working with them in a didactic perspective in the virtual space; evaluation, which involved sharing the micro-narratives and engaging in circular discussions about them; and learning, which involved documenting the educational possibilities and limitations of micro-narratives. The results, processed using IRaMuTeQ, showed limited prior knowledge about ChatGPT and the importance of micro-narratives for educational work, as well as their fruitful pedagogical use for learning in the virtual space through conscious utilization.

Lortie's original conception of the apprenticeship of observation was one of conservative schooling practice and negative impact on teacher learning for school change. Schooling practices have changed in the 60 years since the original research that established the apprenticeship of observation as launch pad to teaching, changing prospective teachers' experience of schooling. This article shares the experience of one pre-service teacher who never attended school, having been home educated. The absence of an apprenticeship of observation in schools highlights the need to better understand the growing diversity of experience pre-service teachers bring to initial teacher education. This one pre-service teacher's experience raises the need to explore Lortie's conception in the context of contemporary school experience and the impact on learning to teach. Challenging the acceptance of Lortie's view to pre-service teachers' prior experience and the impact on learning to teach has significance for all teacher education programs.

Previous studies report that exposure to the Maori language on a regular basis allows New Zealand adults who cannot speak Maori to build a proto-lexicon of Maori -- an implicit memory of word forms without detailed knowledge of meaning. How might this knowledge feed into explicit language learning? Is it possible to "awaken" the proto-lexicon in the context of overt language learning? We investigate whether implicit linguistic knowledge represented in a proto-lexicon gives any advantages for intentional language learning in a tertiary educational environment. We conducted a three-task experiment which: (a) assessed participants' Maori proto-lexicon; (b) assessed their phonotactic knowledge; and (c) tested them on Maori vocabulary that they had been exposed to during the course at two time points. The results show that students with larger Maori proto-lexicons learn more words in a classroom setting. This study shows that proto-lexicon acquired from ambient exposure can lead to significant benefits in language learning.

Background: Recent research showed that cross-notation magnitude knowledge of fractions and decimals was related to better performance in fraction arithmetic, but it remains unclear whether it made an independent contribution to fraction arithmetic longitudinally when other cognitive variables are considered. Aims: To examine the extent to which children's earlier knowledge of cross-notation magnitude predicted subsequent performance in fraction addition and subtraction as well as fraction multiplication and division longitudinally. Sample: Three hundred and fifty-four Chinese children (Mage = 112.1 months). Methods: During the first wave of assessment, a range of cognitive abilities of children were measured, including within-notation fraction and decimal magnitude comparisons, whole-number arithmetic fluency, non-verbal intelligence, attentive behaviours, counting recall, word-level reading, and phonological awareness. Twelve months later, the same children were assessed again with two tasks of fraction arithmetic: fraction addition and subtraction as well as fraction multiplication and division. Results and Conclusions: Multiple linear regressions showed that within-notation fraction and decimal magnitude knowledge predicted fraction addition and subtraction longitudinally, after the effects of working memory, nonverbal intelligence, language skills, attentive behaviour, and whole-number arithmetic were controlled. Cross-notation magnitude knowledge made independent contributions to fraction addition and subtraction longitudinally beyond the influence of within-notation fraction and decimal magnitude knowledge and other covariates. However, within-notation fraction and decimal magnitude knowledge were not associated with fraction multiplication and division, whereas cross-notation magnitude knowledge remained a unique predictor. These findings suggest that it may be useful to incorporate cross-notation knowledge in the assessments of children's mathematics abilities and teaching.

Linguistics is conspicuously absent from language teaching in UK schools. A-level cultural topics cover a range of themes such as cyber-society, cultural heritage and multiculturalism, but the approach taken to these topics is not informed by linguistics. In previous work, we have argued that this is an unfortunate omission not only because linguistics is appealing to many language students and perceived by them to be useful, but also because the existing cultural topics could be significantly enriched by the inclusion of the critical/analytical study of language itself. In this paper, we provide concrete examples of how linguistics can be integrated into the existing A-level curriculum for Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) in England and Wales. Reporting on a project in which teachers trialled linguistics materials co-created by us (a group of academics) and experienced languages teachers, we present evidence that linguistics materials are perceived to be both highly novel and nonetheless compatible with the existing A-level curriculum. Data from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with participating teachers also show that: (i) these new materials can be taught with little or no prior experience of linguistics; and (ii) adding linguistics materials to the curriculum leads to significant impacts on teacher and pupil attitudes towards language(s). Despite some challenges, which we also discuss, the results highlight again the great potential of linguistics as a component of language teaching and the contribution that it can make to the enrichment of the discipline.

This interdisciplinary paper brings together scholarship from the fields of education, psychology, sociology and performance to shed light on three pedagogy and learning strategies to support learners recontextualise knowledge between higher education and work contexts. These strategies include offering multiple different types of performance activities and modes of engagement with different types of people (learners/experts, different cultures, ages, etc.). Secondly, it provides spaces to fail and enables testing of personal strategies with limited risk. Finally, it supports students in connecting ideas and experiences from the past, across educational experiences of different performance practices and into wider contexts such as professional work. The research, which is a pilot, recognises the ways in which these strategies align with and operationalise Guile's (2010) concept of recontextualisation, offering pedagogues tools to support learning in a similar way in which the concept of scaffolding might be seen to operationalise Vygotsky's notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This pilot study uses semi-structured interviews and a thematic analysis approach with five graduates from an undergraduate drama degree programme in London. We recognise drama as a practical degree subject and as such consider our findings as generalisable to wider practical fields and disciplines, such as engineering and nursing education, and as having international relevance. The work offers a novel approach to conceptualising and evaluating the ways in which students deploy taught knowledge beyond the classroom, in work. It offers and augments arguments around the ways in which students bridge practice and learning from within the HEI and beyond it.

In various fields, including college admission, medical board certifications, and military recruitment, high-stakes decisions are frequently made based on scores obtained from large-scale assessments. These decisions necessitate precise and reliable scores that enable valid inferences to be drawn about test-takers. However, the ability of such tests to provide reliable, accurate inference on a test-taker's performance could be jeopardized by aberrant test-taking practices, for instance, practicing real items prior to the test. As a result, it is crucial for administrators of such assessments to develop strategies that detect potential aberrant test-takers after data collection. The aim of this study is to explore the implementation of machine learning methods in combination with multimodal data fusion strategies that integrate bio-information technology, such as eye-tracking, and psychometric measures, including response times and item responses, to detect aberrant test-taking behaviors in technology-assisted remote testing settings.

Adult learners are a significant proportion of distance learners and many of these students are working mothers. Several instructional design models center the learner, and this requires understanding the learner needs, strengths, and context. There is a gap in the literature describing the experience of modern working mother students in distance education. To understand this experience, the researchers interviewed and observed six academically high-achieving working mother students as they participated in their distance education courses during the pandemic. A discourse analysis approach was utilized to analyze the data. This extreme sample revealed several strategies that these students used to be successful despite their challenges. The findings suggest that understanding the experiences of distance learners as they study in the home are important for effective course design. More specifically, working mothers face significant distractions in their study environments, but the cognitive load can be reduced by making use of their prior knowledge, scaffolding instruction, and encouraging social presence. Additional strategies from the literature that address these constructs are provided for instructors and instructional designers.

Background: In example-based learning, examples are often combined with generative activities, such as comparative self-explanations of example cases. Comparisons induce heavy demands on working memory, especially in complex domains. Hence, only stronger learners may benefit from comparative self-explanations. While static text-based examples can be compared easily, this is challenging for transient video-based modelling examples used in complex domains because simultaneous processing of two videos is not feasible. Objectives: To allow for such comparisons, we combined video-based modelling examples with static representations (i.e., summarizing tables) of the observed optimal and a suboptimal solution of the problem-solving process. A comparative self-explanation prompt asked learners to compare the different solution approaches. Our study investigated the impact of video-based modelling examples versus independent problem-solving on cognitive load and problem-solving skill development. Moreover, we investigated the effects of comparative versus sequential self-explanation prompts, depending on learners' prior knowledge. Methods: In an experiment, 118 automotive apprentices learned a car malfunction diagnosis strategy. Apprentices were divided into three groups: (1) modelling examples with comparative self-explanation prompts, (2) modelling examples with sequential prompts, and (3) no examples or prompts. Diagnostic knowledge and skills were assessed before and after the intervention. Cognitive load was measured retrospectively. Results and conclusions: Despite no observed effects on cognitive load, modelling examples enhanced diagnostic knowledge and diagnostic skills with scaffolds, though not independent diagnostic skills without scaffolds. The need for more practice opportunities to foster independent diagnostic skills is assumed. Additionally, comparative prompts seem promising for learners with higher prior knowledge. Takeaways: Video-based modelling examples were more beneficial for learning than practising to apply the diagnostic strategy. Static representations allow for comparisons of video examples and comparative prompts are promising for learners with higher prior knowledge (cf. expertise-reversal effect). Further research, especially on the effects on cognitive load, is necessary.

Nowadays, mathematics teachers in K-12 strive to promote their students' mathematical knowledge and computational thinking (CT) skills. There is an increasing need for effective CT-embedded mathematics learning material and a better understanding of students' views toward them. In this work, we present the results of a research study, which included the design of a six-lesson learning activity aimed at fostering 16- to 17-year-old secondary students' CT skills in calculus lessons using the dynamic mathematics software "GeoGebra." Our goal was to investigate how students experienced the CT-embedded calculus lessons with "GeoGebra" and what challenges they faced during their interaction with the learning material and software. We collected and analyzed data from students' code in "GeoGebra," workbooks, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires. Our findings suggest that most students mastered using CT concepts in calculus activities to a satisfactory degree and could reason about their computational solutions using "GeoGebra" and the generated graphs. Students' understanding of the mathematical content knowledge introduced was essential to complete the lesson series successfully and unnoticed gaps in prior knowledge emerged. Our study shows that students appreciate the CT-embedded calculus lessons and "GeoGebra's" exploratory approach to mathematics problems when provided with appropriate support. We conclude that an integrated approach to mathematics education and CT is viable and can contribute not only to fostering CT but also to increasing interest in mathematics.

With the continued unfolding of major climatic shifts, questions continue to emerge about how to approach climate change in the science classroom, at least in the USA where it is often perceived as socio-politically controversial. Broadly, research in science education has shown that the learning process around climate change is highly complex and variable, and our understanding of it remains emergent. This study argues that when designing learning experiences for issues like climate change, we must consider students' prior knowledge of the social world. Using ideology as a theoretical lens, this study then examines discourse data of several classroom elicitation discussions in two sections of a 9th grade US classroom to clarify what intuitive understandings of the social world and assumptions students bring to their classroom learning about climate change. Moment-by-moment discourse analysis shows the emergence of assumptions of a sharply divided social world and the making material of an ideology that reflects these divisions. This study considers implications for such prior knowledge on scientific sensemaking and offers implications for science teaching and future research.

As online learning has become an inevitable trend in the post-peak era of the COVID-19 pandemic, distributed pair programming (DPP) is gaining momentum in both education and industry. DDP serves as a collaborative programming approach and also benefits the development of computational thinking, a fundamental skill in today's world. This study conducted a systematic review of studies on DPP published after 2010 to understand the themes and factors that impact the team effectiveness of DPP and thus inform future research and practices on how to better leverage this approach for teaching and learning. The results showed that individual characteristics attracted major investigations in the selected 23 studies, including prior programming experience, actual skill, perceived skill, gender, personality, time management, confidence, and self-esteem, with pair compatibility identified as a critical team design factor that significantly affects programmers' satisfaction. Although the feel-good factor in the team process was investigated, no significant impact was found. Under the team environment theme, we compared different opinions on the orientation (e.g., scripted roles) and the use of technology (e.g., integrated development environment tools). Future research should investigate how task structure influences team effectiveness of DPP and relates to computational thinking education. Additionally, because most studies were conducted in higher education contexts, more research in primary and secondary educational contexts is also needed.

This article provides a review of previous studies that have examined the effects of orthography on establishing contrastive phonological representations in second language acquisition and presents results from an original study on Mandarin speakers' production of English stops investigating how the presence of orthography affects the production of phonological categories that involve allophony. English voiceless stops are canonically represented as aspirated [p[superscript h], t[superscript h], k[superscript h]] in word-initial/stressed onset positions but are realized as unaspirated [p, t, k] following /s/ and in unstressed, non-initial onset positions. The results of our imitation experiment showed that Mandarin speakers failed to correctly imitate the unaspirated allophones when presented with written input, and this orthographic effect was stronger with nonwords than with real words. These results are best explained by an orthography effect mediated by phonological awareness and prior linguistic experience.

The trend in history education is gradually emphasizing the development of historical thinking and collaborative problem-solving skills, which are expected to enhance the breadth and depth of learners' thinking. The integration of game-based learning with collaborative problem-solving activities designed for historical thinking is expected to help increase learners' motivation. Cognitive scaffolding can provide immediate guidance in educational games to facilitate proper understanding and discussion of historical knowledge among learners. In this study, we used the history educational game "Void Broken 2.0" embedded with cognitive scaffolding to guide students to use their historical thinking skills in collaborative problem-solving tasks, and analyzed the behavioral patterns of the learners in using cognitive scaffolding and discussing historical thinking. The participants in this study were 158 high school students divided into an experimental group (game-based learning) and a control group (reading-based learning). The results showed that the learning activities of both groups contributed to the learning effectiveness, and there was no significant difference between the groups. As the game progressed, students in the experimental group actively utilized the assistance of the cognitive scaffolding. The need for immediate access to the cognitive scaffold's prompts did not increase significantly as the game progressed, and students with high prior knowledge were willing to share their understanding and incorporate more diverse types of information into the discussion. Low prior knowledge students' need for immediate access to the cognitive scaffolding hints increased significantly as the game progressed, and they were more willing to work with their peers to find information related to chronological reasoning, engage in repetitive discussions, and explore possible clues.

Research on students' perceptions and understanding of technology has shown that students have a narrow view of technology: for example, technology is often manifested in students' descriptions as artefacts or objects. This study investigates the ways in which students' understanding of how technology is manifested expands during a series of classroom activities in technology. The study was conducted at a compulsory primary school with eight-year-old students. The data (video and audio recordings) were collected in small-group interactions and in whole-class discussions. In the interactions, the students utilised self-taken photographs to visualise their understanding and perception of technology's manifestations: object, activity, volition, and knowledge (Mitcham in Thinking through technology. The path between engineering and philosophy, The University of Chicago Press, 1994). Based on their prior knowledge, the students perceived technology as contemporary electrical artefacts. As they engage in a technology project, they develop and expand their understanding of how technology is manifested, as well as relate different manifestations to one another. The findings indicate that students achieve a more advanced understanding of technological manifestations compared to only discussing each manifestation of technology separately.

Primary school children frequently use digital devices, which can be infected by computer viruses. In this mixed methods paper with two studies (N = 278 + 114), we examined 8-year-olds' preconceptions about computer viruses and protection against them; how to teach these children about said topics using three different, 30-min-long, content-equivalent lessons; and what knowledge the children can acquire. We found that participants had limited prior knowledge of computer viruses and almost no knowledge about protection against them. However, they rarely had misconceptions. They learnt, and retained over a month, key general points and a few specific points about this domain. Acquired knowledge was still somewhat patchy, most likely represented in 'pieces' rather than as complex, theory-like chunks. Nevertheless, all three approaches produced notable learning gains (d > 1.78). A lesson organized around a narrative 5-min video and six < 1 min video snippets was the most effective: compared to a lesson organized around two 5-min videos (d = 0.89) and a teacher-led lesson without videos (d = 0.54). The findings are consistent with contemporary instructional design theories and 'knowledge in pieces' conceptual change frameworks. They imply that the topic of computer viruses should be included in second-graders' curricula.

This study aimed to examine multilevel models posited to predict student perceptions of teacher feedback quality. A cross-sectional survey design was used, involving 1072 middle school students. We incorporated two clusters of variables: (a) student characteristics (gender, prior knowledge, parent education, homework expectancy, homework value, homework cost, and help seeking) and (b) the characteristics of the classroom context (perceived homework quality, autonomy support, and teacher monitoring). Perceived feedback quality was positively related to perceived autonomy support and homework quality at the individual and class levels. Meanwhile, perceived feedback quality was positively related to homework expectancy, homework value, and help seeking at the individual level.

How do teachers learn about what learners already know? How do learners aid teachers by providing them with information about their background knowledge and what they find confusing? We formalize this collaborative reasoning process using a hierarchical Bayesian model of pedagogy. We then evaluate this model in two online behavioral experiments (N = 312 adults). In Experiment 1, we show that teachers select examples that account for learners' background knowledge, and adjust their examples based on learners' feedback. In Experiment 2, we show that learners strategically provide more feedback when teachers' examples deviate from their background knowledge. These findings provide a foundation for extending computational accounts of pedagogy to richer interactive settings.

Collaborative learning (CL) is a common teaching strategy in colleges that involves actively working in groups to achieve a goal. Several studies and theories endorse it as contributing to students' achievement, motivation, and higher-order thinking skills. However, these studies are inconsistent in the way they define and operationalize CL. For example, they do not separate the quantity and the quality of CL, nor do they distinguish between course-specific and general attitudes toward CL. The study suggests that researchers should define CL more precisely, and demonstrates this approach using a case study (N = 38). This study examines whether the quality and quantity of group work predicted course achievement after controlling for prior achievement, individual-level motivation, and social ties among students. Quality of CL was operationalized as positive attitudes toward CL in the current course and in general, and quantity of CL was operationalized as the frequency of interactions among group members. Social ties were measured using Social Network Analysis (SNA) which allows researchers to identify the number and strength of connections among students. Findings suggest that positive attitudes toward CL in the current course predicted higher achievement levels, but the frequency of interactions and positive attitudes toward CL in general were associated with lower achievement levels. That is, in the current context, course-specific quality of CL was positively associated with achievement, but other ways of operationalizing CL were not, and in fact had negative relationships with achievement. The study also demonstrates the use of SNA when exploring students' relationships; it shows that they were associated with course performance but that this association diminished after controlling for students' attitudes. Overall, it is recommended that researchers clarify what they intend to measure when exploring CL, as this can have an important impact on findings.

Bilingual environments present an important context for word learning. One feature of bilingual environments is the existence of translation equivalents (TEs)--words in different languages that share similar meanings. Documenting TE learning over development may give us insight into the mechanisms underlying word learning in young bilingual children. Prior studies of TE learning have often been confounded by the fact that increases in overall vocabulary size with age lead to greater opportunities for learning TEs. To address this confound, we employed an item-level analysis, which controls for the age trajectory of each item independently. We used Communicative Development Inventory data from four bilingual datasets (two English-Spanish and two English-French; total N = 419) for modeling. Results indicated that knowing a word's TE increased the likelihood of knowing that word for younger children and for TEs that are more similar phonologically. These effects were consistent across datasets, but varied across lexical categories. Thus, TEs may allow bilingual children to bootstrap their early word learning in one language using their knowledge of the other language.

Collaborative problem-solving (CPS) includes multiple socio-cognitive processes that can be challenging to investigate. Constructing arguments is a key practice at the intersection of CPS and science learning. To understand how students construct arguments and develop science knowledge during CPS, we focus on team synchrony--the extent of similarity of navigation actions between team members--in a game-based learning environment. Specifically, we examined the impact of team synchrony on students' argument construction and science knowledge acquisition in a science learning game, "Alien Rescue." Using a mixed methods approach, we analyzed a range of in-game data and performance data of 69 teams from 146 sixth-grade students. Our results show that team synchrony enhanced students' science knowledge acquisition, whereas its effects on argumentation features were nuanced: (a) higher team synchrony groups were more productive in constructing backing compared to low team synchrony groups in conditions where their prior knowledge was high, and (b) there was no significant difference between the two groups in generating claims. We also identified two illustrative cases to show the observed relationship between team synchrony and complexity of arguments that students constructed as a team. Our study has implications for tracing learning processes through log and textual data to understand students' CPS process and performance, which consequently inform the design of scaffolds that support students' CPS.

Emergentist, usage-based L2 research has witnessed that emphasizing formulaic sequences as entry points in meaning-based instructional contexts contributes to the development of linguistic comprehension and production. Related studies have thus far striven to find the most effective methods of highlighting these word strings. This study explored the effects of the focus on lexis (FonL) approach on L2 learners' development of phraseological competence. Furthermore, it probed whether incidental and intentional FonL approaches result in any differential effects on the learners' development of phraseology. Participants were 60 L2 learners in three intact classes randomly assigned to one control and two experimental FonL groups. Their general language proficiency was measured by administering a Cambridge PET Test. Additionally, a pre-test was used to measure their prior knowledge of phraseology. The control group received the mainstream typical instruction, whereas the experimental groups received incidental versus intentional FonL, differentially heightening noticing of conventionalized lexis expressions in L2 reading. A parallel posttest was administered to measure the development of learners' phraseological competence. ANCOVA results indicated that the lexis groups made greater gains in their phraseology as compared to the control group. Moreover, differential effects were evidenced specifically in favor of the use of intentional FonL. The findings indicate that the varied amount of attention L2 learners pay to aspects of formulaicity in language use can influence the extent to which lexis-based input and interaction lead to intake. Theoretical and pedagogical implications of the study are discussed at the end.

Advances in neuro-technology provide new insights into how individual students learn in educational contexts. However, applying it poses challenges for teachers in natural settings. This paper presents an example of the use and applicability of eye-tracking technology in Higher Education. We worked with a sample of 20 students from three universities (Burgos and Valladolid in Spain and Miño in Portugal). The objectives were: (1) to determine whether there were significant differences in indicators of cognitive effort (FC, FD, SC, PD, VC) found with eye-tracking technology between students with and without prior knowledge; (2) to determine whether there were clusters of learning behavior patterns among students; and (3) to analyze differences in the visualization of behavior patterns. A quasi-experimental design without a control group and a descriptive design were used. The results indicated significant differences in learning outcomes between students with and without prior knowledge. In addition, two clusters were found in indicators of cognitive effort. Finally, a comparative analysis of learning behavior patterns between students in cluster 1 vs. cluster 2 was performed. Eye-tracking technology makes it possible to record large data about the learning process. However, using it in natural educational settings currently requires teachers to have technological and data mining skills.

Contribution: Model-based learning improves systems thinking (ST) based on students' prior knowledge and gender. Relations were found between textual, visual, and mixed question types and student achievements. Background: ST is essential to judicious decision-making and problem-solving. Undergraduate students can be taught to apply better ST, and analysis of their online systems modeling processes can improve their ST. Research Questions: 1) What is the effect, if any, of online learning on the ST and conceptual modeling skill levels of undergraduate engineering students? 2) What differences are there, if any, between students' ST, conceptual modeling, and scores in textual, visual, and mixed question types based on their prior knowledge levels? and 3) Are there any gender differences in student performance, and if so, what are they? Methodology: The research participants were 157 undergraduate engineering students who took part in a mandatory second-year course, during which data were collected and analyzed quantitatively. Findings: Students with disparate prior knowledge differed significantly from each other in their overall ST mean score and in the mean scores of the various question types. Gender differences in ST and its relative improvement were also found.

In natural science education, experiments often lead to the collection of raw data that need to be processed into results by doing calculations. Teaching students how to approach such calculations can be done using digital learning materials that provide guidance. The goal of this study was to investigate students' behaviour regarding the use of guidance while doing scientific multi-step calculations, and to relate this behaviour to learning. Sequential pattern mining was used to (i) identify students' behaviour patterns while doing calculations in an online learning environment, (ii) study the relation between use of guidance and success on first attempt at submitting a calculated value, (iii) study the relation between students' use of guidance and learning gain, and (iv) study the relation between students' use of guidance and prior knowledge. Data showed that all students frequently used the guidance provided in the learning task. Moreover, students who used the option to check their intermediate calculations and students who studied worked examples were more likely to successfully complete the calculation on their first attempt than students who did not use this guidance. Guidance in the form of hints was used frequently. However, using the hints did not result in more success at the first attempt. We did not find a relation between learning gain and use of guidance, but we did find a trend that students with a low prior knowledge used more guidance compared to students with a high prior knowledge. The results of this study imply that providing hints and intermediate calculations is of utmost importance for students to independently complete scientific multi-step calculations.

The aim of this study was to analyze the joint, relative, and unique predictive value of students' prior knowledge of mathematics (knowledge of fractions and ability to divide natural numbers) and general cognitive ability (fluid intelligence and working memory) upon general mathematics achievement in the last year of primary school. Seventy-five students participated (M age = 11.2 years old, SD = 0.40). Hierarchical regression analysis showed that the ability to divide and fractions knowledge accounted for 41% of the variance in mathematics achievement, both acting as significant predictors. By incorporating working memory and fluid intelligence into the model, fraction knowledge showed to be no longer a significant predictor. These general cognitive skills explained an additional 8% of the variance in mathematics knowledge, both being significant predictors and contributing to mathematics achievement in a unique way. The implications of these results for mathematics teaching are discussed.

Interleaved practice combined with comparison prompts can better foster students' adaptive use of subtraction strategies compared to blocked practice. It has not been previously investigated whether all students benefit equally from these teaching approaches. While interleaving subtraction tasks prompts students' attention to the different task characteristics triggering the use of specific subtraction strategies, blocked practice does not support students in detecting these differences. Thus, low-prior-knowledge students would benefit from interleaving rather than blocking as it guides them through the learning-relevant comparison processes. Because these comparison processes are cognitively demanding, students' need for cognition (NFC) could influence the effectiveness of interleaved practice. The present study investigates the role of students' prior knowledge and NFC for the effectiveness of interleaved and blocked practice. To this end, 236 German third-graders were randomly assigned to either an interleaved or blocked condition. Over 14 lessons, both groups were taught to use four number-based strategies and the written algorithm for solving subtraction problems. The interleaved learners were prompted to compare the strategies, while the blocked learners compared the adaptivity of one strategy for different mathematical tasks. A quadratic growth curve model showed that prior knowledge had a positive influence on students' development of adaptivity in the blocked but not in the interleaved condition. Students' NFC had a positive impact in the interleaved condition, while it had no influence in the blocked condition. However, the effects of prior knowledge and NFC did not differ significantly between the two conditions.

Background: Guided gaze is the instructor's gaze towards teaching materials to guide students' attention, and it plays a vital role in enhancing video-based education. The duration of guided gaze, indicating how long instructors focus on teaching materials, varies based on the lecture design. Nevertheless, the impact of varying durations of guided gaze, especially concerning students' prior knowledge, remains inadequately understood. Objectives: This study investigates the influence of the instructor's guided gaze duration and students' prior knowledge on learning performance and affective experiences in video lectures. Methods: 145 fifth-grade students participated and were divided into high and low prior knowledge groups based on a pre-test. Within each group, students were randomly assigned to view one of three video lectures with different guided gaze durations (high vs. medium vs. low). Learning performance and affective experiences (learning experience, satisfaction, and emotions) were measured as dependent variables. Results and Conclusion: The results revealed that low guided gaze duration significantly improves learning performance for students with low prior knowledge. Conversely, high guided gaze duration negatively impacts learning experience, satisfaction, and positive emotions. Additionally, students with high prior knowledge reported higher learning experience and satisfaction. These findings highlight the interaction between guided gaze duration and prior knowledge in students' learning performance. Implications: Our findings provide valuable implications for the design of guided gaze duration in video lectures based on students' prior knowledge. By adjusting guided gaze duration appropriately, instructors can optimise students' learning performance and affective experiences.