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The only pesticide currently registered for mongoose control is a product developed for rats that consists of a hard-cereal bait block. Although the active ingredient (diphacinone) is known to be highly effective for mongoose, previous studies indicate that carnivorous and omnivorous mongooses do not readily consume the hard bait matrix designed for gnawing rodents. A palatable bait matrix with a consistency more appropriate to mongoose dentition and feeding behavior will be required to develop a more effective mongoose pesticide. We evaluated the acceptance and consumption of nontoxic versions of four candidate bait matrices: FOXECUTE® and FOXSHIELD® (Animal Control Technologies, Australia; ACTA); HOGGONE® (ACTA); and a potted pork shoulder loaf containing artificial dead mouse scent developed by WS-NWRC as a bait for invasive brown treesnakes (hereafter ‘BTS bait’). We offered test groups of six mongooses one of the candidate bait matrices alongside dry dog kibble dog food as a challenge diet for five days. Because the potential active ingredients para-aminopropiophenone and sodium nitrite require accumulation of the toxicant within a relatively brief period of time to affect lethal toxicity before they are metabolized, we conditioned mongooses to feeding within only a four-hour window rather than slowly sampling the bait throughout the day. We estimated rate and amount of consumption through review of time-lapse photography of feeding trials and measured total consumption by weighing uneaten portions of bait. From the first day offered, most mongooses readily consumed ample amounts of all four bait matrices and consumed almost no challenge diet. Overall, consumption was highest and most consistent with the BTS bait. Although this trial did not clearly discriminate an optimal bait matrix, this result is highly encouraging in that we have multiple palatable options. The final selection will be based on other characteristics of the bait matrix such as longevity in the field, compatibility with the selected toxicant, and ease of manufacture, storage, and use. We provide an overview of some of these characteristics for each candidate bait type.

A non-toxic liquid fertility control bait for rats has recently become commercially available (ContraPest® from SenesTech, Inc.). This product contains two chemicals, both of which impair spermatogenesis in male and reduce ovulations in female rats. We tested the efficacy of this bait in wild-caught adult black rats from the island of Hawai’i in a short-term laboratory trial. A control group (n = 25) was offered placebo bait and the treatment group (n = 25) was offered fertility control bait, both ad libitum, during a 15-day introduction period and during the first of four breeding rounds, for a total of 58 days of exposure. After treatment, all rats were provided placebo bait for the remainder of the study and randomly paired with mates from within their treatment groups for two additional breeding cycles. Treatment and control groups comprised 10 breeding pairs each, with random re-pairings between breeding rounds. The treatment group produced no litters during the first and second breeding rounds, while 70% of the control females produced litters. In the third breeding round, 70 days after stopping treatment, the treatment group produced three litters (six pups) compared to seven litters (24 pups) in the control group. During a fourth and final breeding round, control rats were crossed with treated rats, producing six litters (27 pups) from treated dams and nine litters (40 pups) from control dams, indicating no apparent infertility effect 99 days after cessation of treatment. This study demonstrates that the reproduction rate of wild-caught black rats can be chemically suppressed if provided ad libitum access to the fertility control bait under laboratory conditions.

We conducted research to develop a safe and effective toxic bait to control the small Indian mongoose (Urva auropunctata), an invasive vertebrate predator impacting the survival of native species in Hawai'i and in other parts of the world. A preserved fish-based bait product was found to be highly palatable to mongooses in cage trials and subsequent formulations with diphacinone (0.005%) showed promise as an efficacious toxic bait for mongooses. This product is intended for future use to control mongooses in conservation and urban areas, and as a biosecurity tool at ports of entry to address accidental introductions into mongoose-free areas. Anticipated delivery of this toxic bait is in tamper-proof bait stations. We designed three prototype bait stations constructed with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) drainage pipes and evaluated their performance in enclosure trials with wild-caught mongooses and in field trials with free-ranging mongooses. A commercially available tamper-resistant rodenticide bait station was also used for comparison to the prototypes in our trials. The goal was to develop a bait station that is readily used by mongooses, allows for bait consumption in place, prevents removal of bait, and restricts access to nontarget animals. We used a non-toxic formulation of the fish-based bait product and monitored bait station use, visitation rates, bait uptake, and spillage. All four bait station types were used by mongooses in the laboratory, and one PVC bait station design and the commercial bait station exhibited multiple mongoose visitations with minimal bait spillage in the field. We did not record any significant nontarget species interactions with the bait during the field trials. The PVC bait station design and commercial bait station are approved methods of bait delivery in the subsequent field efficacy trials under an Experimental Use Permit for the upcoming registration of "Fish-based Bait for Mongooses" with the Environmental Protection Agency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rodent damage research in Hawaii has evolved in response to shifts from large-scale monoculture agriculture, such as sugarcane, to cultivation of diversified high-value specialty crops, such as export ornamental nurseries and forestry products. Recent findings and renewed conservation awareness of the impact of predators, especially rodents, as important limiting factors of many of Hawaii’s endangered avifauna have stimulated increased efforts to reduce rodent depredation in conservation areas and other natural resources. Some of the early tools developed in agriculture have been incorporated and successfully used for protecting non-agricultural resources and new methods have been developed for current problems. This paper summarizes the rodent research that the National Wildlife Research Center’s Hawaii Field Station has conducted over these years of changing economic times and priorities.

Roof rats (Rattus rattus) damage an estimated 5 to 10% of the developing nut crop in Hawaiian macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) orchards. Relevant aspects of roof rat biology in macadamia orchards have and continue to be studied with the ultimate goal of developing an ecologically sound and cost-effective integrated pest management plan. The field component of a two-year study of roof rat populations in macadamia orchards has recently been completed. The goal of this study is to clarify the relationship between roof rat seasonal abundance, macadamia flowering, and nut production on five orchards in three regions on the island of Hawaii. The authors herein present preliminary results from selected aspects of this research. This and other completed studies on rat feeding locations and the effect of simulated rat damage during different stages of nut development will aid in the determination of critical points in the crop cycle when rats cause significant economic damage and control of damage is warranted. This paper is intended to be an overview of research leading to the development of a realistic integrated pest management plan for roof rats in Hawaiian macadamia orchards.

Black rats (Rattus rattus) cause extensive damage in Hawaiian macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) orchards. In a previous study, extensive and persistent snap trapping significantly reduced rat populations and depredations on developing macadamia nuts, but had little effect on subsequent yields of mature nuts. This suggested that macadamia trees may compensate for rat damage, and that commonly used indices based on rodent activity and proportion of nuts damaged may overestimate the impact of rodent depredations and exaggerate the effectiveness of control measures. To clarify the effects of rat feeding on developing macadamia nuts, two levels of damage at two times during nut development and evaluated yields of mature nuts were simulated. Both number of nuts per raceme (P = 0.0001) and total weight of mature kernels per raceme (P = 0.0001), but not mean weight per mature kernel (P = 0.90), varied among treatments. Both number of nuts and total weight of kernels decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing damage. Time during nut development that damage was simulated had no apparent effect (P > 0.05) on yields. These results indicate that racemes did not compensate for damage by retaining other nuts on the same raceme that might otherwise have dropped prematurely. A variance component analysis was also conducted to determine how best to sample the orchard in a practical fashion while minimizing potential sources of bias and retaining sensitivity for distinguishing among treatment effects. All of the random variability in the number of nuts per raceme and total weight of nuts per raceme, and > 93% of the variability in mean weight per mature nut were due to variability between racemes on a tree. Thus, blocking was not needed to control for variability among the different areas in the orchard; sampling fewer trees and concentrating available resources on measuring more racemes per tree would have provided a more sensitive comparison of treatments. Focusing on entire branches or trees instead of racemes as experimental units might have provided a more realistic model for investigating compensatory mechanisms in macadamia trees.

The small Indian mongoose (Urva auropunctata [syn. Herpestes auropunctatus]; mongoose) is a highly invasive species in its introduced range that negatively impacts ecosystems. Mongooses depredate native species, serve as a vector of disease posing a risk to human health, and cause sanitation issues in food processing facilities and public areas. Introduced for biocontrol in the late 1800s in Hawai'i and the Caribbean, mongooses currently have well-established populations across multiple islands in both island archipelagos and have invaded numerous other locations throughout the world. The concern of accidental introduction to mongoose-free islands, the difficulty in species detection, and the high cost and labor demand of trapping present the need for a novel control method. A target-specific and efficacious toxic bait can provide an additional tool to reduce mongoose abundance, to eradicate incipient populations, and for biocontrol at ports of entry. In this paper, we document the pathway to registration for a toxic bait for mongoose control with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A registered product must demonstrate a low risk to nontarget species, meet standards for human health and safety, and show no unreasonable adverse effects to the environment. There are no other comparable invasive small mammalian carnivores for which toxic baits have been developed and registered for bait station deployment in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the temporal, spatial, and behavioral patterns of the free-ranging target species in response to candidate baits and baiting strategies is important to ensure control success. This information can also assist in the development and deployment of feeding stations and can exclude non-target species while constituting effective bait delivery and control strategies for certain invasive animals, especially at environmentally sensitive sites. We used passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags in conjunction with very-high frequency radio-telemetry to remotely record bait station visitations and evaluate bait attractiveness in separate field research studies of brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis) on Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, between 1999 and 2000 and in 2007, for small Indian mongooses (Urva auropunctata: Syn. Herpestes auropunctatus) on Hilo, Hawai'i Island, Hawai'i. USA. This system allowed us to document visitation rates to bait stations by brown treesnakes and mongooses. In Guam, we determined that 75% of medium to large brown treesnakes (>850 mm snout-vent length [SVL]) attracted to the bait stations consumed toxic bait, while smaller snakes (<850 mm SVL) were not attracted to the bait stations. On Hawai'i Island, we learned mongooses foraged over large areas (range = 6.0-70.2 ha), traveled up to 598 m to select baits, had restricted centers of activity, and displayed fidelity to newly discovered food sources. We recorded discrete group feeding activity not previously documented for mongooses. We found that anterior and posterior double-PIT tagging improved detectability of both target species. The complimentary monitoring system we used can be easily adapted for monitoring small mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibian species and various activities of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trapping records from studies conducted in Hawaiian sugarcane fields were analyzed to determine the effects of rat captures on subsequent capture success of Rattus norvegicus, R. rattus, and R. exulans. Traps that captured rats were subsequently more likely to capture another rat of the same species. We detected no differences in trap responses of males and females, nor did we observe any evidence that capture success of Polynesian rats and roof rats was affected by previous captures of Norway rats. This increased trap success may have been due to residual trap odors, or to greater success of traps set in optimal locations. Researchers should exercise caution in interpreting trapping results, and take precautions to eliminate residual trap odors due to previous captures. A better understanding of the effects of congeneric odors on the trapability of rats could lead to the development of more attractive and selective bait formulations, improved trapping techniques, and better interpretation of research results.

We conducted a series of preliminary feeding trials with Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), roof rats (R. rattus), and Polynesian rats (R. exulans) to examine the effects of carbon disulfide (CS2 on consumption of nontoxic foods. We formulated CS2 at target concentrations of 10 ppm in deionized water, and of 50 ppm to 100,000 ppm in a starch xanthate matrix. However, we did not analyze actual concentrations of CS2 in the test foods or measure its rate of volatilization, and thus cannot verify the levels of CS2 the rats were exposed to CS2 diluted in water and applied directly to food had no apparent effect on consumption by any of the species. Formulations with 50 ppm CS2 in starch xanthate influenced food choice by Norway rats and roof rats in one test, but not in another. Concentrations ≥ 10,000 ppm repelled Norway rats. CS2-starch xanthate had little effect on consumption by Polynesian rats. Further testing is needed to develop effective formulations and delivery methods for utilizing CS2 as a bait additive.

A computerized laboratory animal tracking database system and several interactive microcomputer application programs for monitoring captive animals, selecting and randomly assigning animals to treatment groups, formulating baits, and other tasks are described.

Rattus norvegicus, R. exulans, and R. rattus cause extensive damage to Hawaiian sugarcane. This paper gives an overview of the problem and briefly summarizes the history of rodent control on Hawaiian sugarcane plantations. Current baiting practices with zinc phosphide may favor the proliferation of R. norvegicus, and more effective control methods are needed for this species. A cooperative research and development program by the Denver Wildlife Research Center and the nonprofit Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association is described.

Abstract: The black rat, roof rat, or ship rat (Rattus rattus L.) is among the most widespread invasive vertebrates on islands and continents, and it is nearly ubiquitous on Pacific [...]

Abstract Background Plotless density estimators are those that are based on distance measures rather than counts per unit area (quadrats or plots) to estimate the density of some usually stationary event, e.g. burrow openings, damage to plant stems, etc. These estimators typically use distance measures between events and from random points to events to derive an estimate of density. The error and bias of these estimators for the various spatial patterns found in nature have been examined using simulated populations only. In this study we investigated eight plotless density estimators to determine which were robust across a wide range of data sets from fully mapped field sites. They covered a wide range of situations including animal damage to rice and corn, nest locations, active rodent burrows and distribution of plants. Monte Carlo simulations were applied to sample the data sets, and in all cases the error of the estimate (measured as relative root mean square error) was reduced with increasing sample size. The method of calculation and ease of use in the field were also used to judge the usefulness of the estimator. Estimators were evaluated in their original published forms, although the variable area transect (VAT) and ordered distance methods have been the subjects of optimization studies. Results An estimator that was a compound of three basic distance estimators was found to be robust across all spatial patterns for sample sizes of 25 or greater. The same field methodology can be used either with the basic distance formula or the formula used with the Kendall-Moran estimator in which case a reduction in error may be gained for sample sizes less than 25, however, there is no improvement for larger sample sizes. The variable area transect (VAT) method performed moderately well, is easy to use in the field, and its calculations easy to undertake. Conclusion Plotless density estimators can provide an estimate of density in situations where it would not be practical to layout a plot or quadrat and can in many cases reduce the workload in the field.

The eradication or control of invasive small Indian mongooses from islands likely requires toxic baiting when removal by trapping proves insufficient. The one toxic bait currently registered for mongooses in the United States has relatively low palatability and efficacy for mongooses. Developing and registering a new pesticide can be very expensive, while funding for developing toxicants for mongooses is limited. Once registered, use of a toxic bait may be hindered by other factors, such as public opposition to an inhumane toxicant, poorer efficacy than expected, or if the toxic bait is difficult for applicators to apply or store. Therefore, we conducted a product feasibility assessment comparing the registration and use potential of toxic baits for mongooses containing either bromethalin, diphacinone, para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP), or sodium nitrite (SN). We estimated that a diphacinone bait would be the cheapest and fastest to register, and more application methods may be allowed compared to the others. On the negative side, we ranked diphacinone as the least humane toxicant of the four, largely due to a prolonged time to death following exposure and onset of symptoms. However, this interval also increases the probability that the antidote can be administered following an accidental exposure. If an alternative toxicant is required, use of a bromethalin, PAPP, or SN bait would likely be limited to bait stations or burrow baiting due to primary risks to non-target species. A bromethalin bait would be the cheapest and fastest to register of the three, particularly if a bait that is already commercially available proved efficacious for mongoose. However, we ranked bromethalin lower than PAPP or SN for overall humaneness. A PAPP bait would be slow and the most expensive to register. An SN bait would be challenging to formulate into a palatable bait with a reasonable shelf life. Although we focused on the U.S., mongooses are invasive in many parts of the world and the regulatory and use requirements for pesticides in other countries are generally comparable. In addition, our feasibility assessment can serve as a template or starting point for managers considering development of toxicant products for vertebrate pests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A wide array of sizes, ecosystems, cultures, and invasive wildlife are represented among inhabited islands. Here, six cases from the United States of America (US) are selected to illustrate the high diversity of invasive animal management issues and objectives. We outline the background, define the problems and management objectives. We identify the management approaches and discuss the results and influences as they specifically relate to inhabited islands. The examples are: (1) Gambian giant pouched rats on Grassy Key, Florida; (2) coqui frogs on Kaua’i, Hawai’i; (3) feral swine on Cayo Costa Island, Florida; (4) rodents and monitor lizards on Cocos Island, Guam; (5) black spiny-tailed iguanas (ctenosaurs) on Gasparilla Island, Florida; and (6) mongooses on Puerto Rico. The outcomes of the programs are discussed, particularly in relation to the impact of human habitation on success. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]