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The article focuses on advancing the understanding of economic losses caused by forest disturbances in Germany, particularly in the context of recent extreme weather events from 2018 to 2020. It aims to develop a standardized and time-differentiated assessment framework for continuous monitoring of economic impacts on German forestry, with a specific focus on raw wood production activities.

Parasites reside inside or outside their hosts and get host nutrition and blood. Here, we have emphasized economic losses in cattle caused by parasitic diseases due to ecto- and endo- parasites (flies, ticks, mites and helminths). We have outlined different methods/models including economic evaluation techniques and dynamic analysis as a major class, used for the calculation of economic losses caused by parasites in cattle. According to already conducted studies, a decrease in production is mentioned in quantity and percentage while financial losses are expressed in the form of account with respect to per head, herd or for the specific study area. The parasites cause the reduced production and financial losses due to control, treatment and mortality costs. We calculated the average decrease in milk production and organ condemnation as 1.16 L animal−1 day−1 and 12.95%, respectively, from overall cattle parasitic infections. Moreover, the average calculated financial and percentage losses were US$ 50.67 animal−1 year−1 and 17.94%, respectively. Economically important parasitic diseases mentioned here are caused by specific spp. of protozoans and helminths according to data collected from the literature. Protozoan diseases include tick-borne diseases, coccidiosis, neosporosis, trypanosomiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Losses due to tick-borne infections were encountered for decreased milk production, mortality, treatment and control. Losses from coccidiosis were due to decreased weight gain, treatment costs and mortality. While abortion losses were encountered in neosporosis. Trypanosomiasis caused losses due to a decrease in milk yield. Moreover, only diagnostic (conventional or molecular techniques) cost was taken into account for cryptosporidiosis. Economically important nematode parasites are Oesophagostomum spp., Cooperia spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides spp., Ostertagia spp. and Haemonchus placei. Due to the zoonotic importance of echinococcosis, Echinococcus granulosus is the most economically important cestode parasite. Losses caused by echinococcosis were due to organ condemnation, carcass weight loss and decreases hide value, milk production and fecundity. While, fascioliasis is one of the most economically important trematodal disease, which causes cirrhosis of the liver due to parasite migration, and thus, the organ becomes inedible. So, it would be helpful for farmers and researchers to approach these methods/models for calculation of parasitic losses and should adopt suitable measures to avoid long-term economic losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An estimate of the economic losses caused by volcanic activity in Costa Rica in the period between 1953 and 2016 in present value is presented. Detailed information of the damage to agriculture, infrastructure is provided, among others, and it is classified according to the year in which the activity occurred and also by the volcano that generated it. During this time there were three national emergencies triggered by volcanic eruptions: Irazú in 1963 - 1965, Arenal in 1968 and Poás in 1990, whose losses were estimated in US$117.3 million, US$5,8 million and between US$1.1 and US$2.3 million, respectively (american dollars in present value of 2016). If taken into consideration other periods of volcanic crisis, the estimated total economic losses in Costa Rica because of volcanism is between US$174.1 and US$193.1 million in present value. This is a minimum amount because many of the economic losses were not historically quantified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated approximation of the impact of volcanic eruptions in the period between the years 1953 and 2005 in Costa Rica is presented for the first time. The detail-led damage (bridges, houses, railways, factories), economic losses (agriculture, livestock, drinking water), disruption of activities, loss of life and investments (donations, mitigation measurements), is given. This focuses on the disasters and economic effects, but the sociological and psychological effects were not assessed. Two national emergencies occurred with the eruption of Irazú in 1963-1965 and Arenal in 1968, and several volcanic crises occurred at other volcanoes including Poás (1953-1955, 1989-1994), Rincón de la Vieja (1967, 1991, 1995 and 1998), and again in Arenal (1975, 1988 and 2000), which produced economic losses due acid rain and/or lahars, and loss of life resulting from pyroclastic flows. Volcanic activity is responsible for a loss of at least $48.7 million in the last century, quantity that is necessary scalar in a future study. In this century, the damage due acid rain is more than $200 million. It is certain that 103 people were killed by volcanic activity in the 20th century, and there are no additional reports of deaths or injuries since 1700. This paper is the basis for future work focused on the socio-economic evaluation, risk analyses and future projections. If a new eruption similar to those of Irazú in 1963-1965 or Arenal in 1968 were to happen during the present century, the economic losses can be expected to be larger than previous ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]